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The Polynesian Wanderings 



Tracks of the Migration Deduced from an Examination 

of the Proto-Samoan Content of Efate and 

other Languages of Melanesia 



BY 

WILLIAM CHURCHILL 

Sometime Consul-General of the United States in Samoa and Tonga, 

Member of the Polynesian Society, the Hawaiian Historical 

Society, the American Philological Association 




PUBLISHED BY 

THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 
1911 



\ 



..ri^ 






CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 
Publication No, 134 



am 

■AR Zi 1911 



PRESS OF GIBSON BROTHERS 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 



/ 



PREFACE. 

To introduce the work contained in the succeeding pages would 
be irksome; it partakes of the nature of a task, for the book must 
be its own best record of the results of years spent in study in the 
distant South Seas, of yet other years of intimate toil. But there 
is pleasure in making a brief and prefatory record of my introduction 
to these Polynesian researches. 

That I owe to James Dwight Dana, not the least distinguished of 
the scientific staff of the United States Exploring Expedition which, 
under the naval command of Lieutenant Wilkes, made that brilliant 
cruise of discovery in the Pacific Oceans between the years 1838 
and 1842. It was a work of supererogation on the part of my pre- 
ceptor to answer my questions about the discovery of savage men 
in the distant sea half around the globe; it formed no part of the 
studies which I was pursuing under his direction. Yet he was ever 
cordial; my questions never went unanswered. Thus gradually I 
acquired a distinctly personal knowledge of the great work which 
had been done in Polynesia, an intimate acquaintance with men 
and scenes which serves still to supplement the formal record con- 
tained in the reports of that historic voyage. 

Not long thereafter, yet it was all of forty years since Dana's day 
in the bright South Sea, it was granted me to cruise over many of 
the inter-island courses which he had followed. That my cruises 
were easy was a debt which I owed to the cartographic work of 
that expedition ; that they were almost always safe was no less due 
to the moral effect which jthe American voyagers had impressed 
upon the savages at their first discovery. 

"When once I landed on the island of Malolo, remotely set in the 
Fiji Islands, and found the people coming to the beach to greet me 
with yams and bamboo tubes of water, it seemed an interesting, 
somewhat picturesque, ceremony. When I inquired into the reason 
I learned that it was called an ancient custom to proffer food and 
water to all visiting strangers. Yet I found that in less than half 
of a stagnant century a custom had become ancient. It was at 
Malolo that a boat's crew of the Wilkes expedition had been cut 
off, as duly set forth in the third volume of the narrative; after 
exacting punishment for this act of murder the Americans laid the 

III 



IV PRl^FACB. 

injunction on Malolo to welcome the stranger, and thus the custom 
arose. 

After an interval of a dozen years I was called to take a part in 
the administration of the affairs of the kingdom of Samoa in that 
historic tangle in which the United States was striving to hold a 
disinterested balance. The most vivacious, and to me the most 
valuable, of the small group of island sages whom I gathered about 
me in the windward outskirts of Apia to help in the prosecution of 
my researches into the past of their people, was a very old chief 
of Vaiala. It seemed that he must have lived forever, this ancient 
Lauta who had long since retired from the active duties which fall 
to the village chief. Like all Samoans he had no sense of the lapse 
of time and no knowledge of the date of his birth. But he was able 
to contribute one early landmark : when he was a mere stripling he 
had gone to Tutuila to undergo his tattooing; when that painful but 
socially necessary operation had been completed he returned to Apia 
on the deck of "the first man-of-war." So far as related to that 
brief voyage from Pagopago to 'Upolu he was a survivor of the 
Wilkes expedition which had passed through his seas more than 
half a century before I knew him. 

In these and many other ways my participation in the study of 
the South Sea has always seemed to me an inheritance from the 
voyagers who sailed with Wilkes so many years ago. 

Nor should I omit acknowledgment of the obligation under which 
I lie to Laupepa, the last of a long line of Malietoas who had ruled 
Samoa from a period which corresponds to the time in our own 
reckoning when Norman William crossed the Channel and fought 
down Saxon Harold on Senlac Field. We had made him king. Poor 
weary soul, we could not make him royal, for we made it impossible 
for him to reign. Now that he has gone beyond the sufferings of 
a king, now that the line of the Malietoas has been broken off, now 
that the puppet kingdom of Samoa is no more, I recall with pleasure 
that he did enjoy the respite from the cares of his troubled state 
in the many hours in which he delighted to communicate to me 
his stores of the wisdom of the past. Few there were who could 
speak Samoan with his grace of diction; few indeed had minds so 
replete with the myth and tradition in which is preserved the ancient 
history of his race. In regardful memory I must not neglect to 
include among those who introduced me to these studies the name 
of Malietoa Laupepa, the last king of Samoa. 



PREFACE. V 

By rigid processes of exclusion I have sought to make the lin- 
guistic material assembled in this volume tell the tale of the peopling 
of so much of the Pacific as is comprehended within the range of 
its extent. It will be seen that Micronesia is wholly omitted ; con- 
siderable material is available for the study of that equatorial region, 
but it is removed by an irreducible gap from the sweep of the data 
upon which these studies are based. In Melanesia this material 
tells no tale of the origin of the dusky races there found; it gives 
us no more than the assurance that the dark races were already 
settled in their crude savagery when the migration swarms of the 
brilliant Polynesians swept onward to happier homes ever eastward. 
Not all of Polynesia are we to find included within the scope of 
this work. The linguistic record here dealt with excludes of its own 
motion the later sweep of migration, that to which I have given 
the designation of Tongafiti, the adventurous voyagers who swept 
onward past central Polynesia to found new races at the utmost 
verge of the great South Sea. 

Our material restricts us to the most ancient Polynesians, the first- 
comers into the Pacific, voyagers who swept the unknown sea some 
two thousand years ago. Of these Proto-Samoans we find here a 
history which carries them back to their expulsion from the Asiatic 
archipelago. I have essayed to plot their ocean fairways. I have 
shown that in two swarms they came out from Indonesia ; that one 
swarm came around the north of New Guinea and entered the Pacific 
by way of Saint George's Channel and at last came to new homes in 
Samoa ; that the other was driven by advancing Malayans into the 
Arafura Sea and south of New Guinea through Torres Straits and 
thence onward to a new home in Fiji. There in Nuclear Polynesia 
the sundered kin resumed their fellowship ; thence they despatched 
yet other expeditions which brought themto Hawaii, to New Zealand, 
and to several spots in the distant east of the Pacific. Upon the 
smaller of the accompanying charts I have plotted so much of these 
Proto-Samoan voyages as I have been able to determine, and to 
these I have added the voyages of the Tongafiti folk who came later, 
by about a thousand years, leaving uncertain the voyage which 
brought them into Nuclear Polynesia, since this material affords no 
record thereof. 

Nor is this all. This record points to something of wider value 
than the wandering of an unimportant folk in a world of islands 
which can attain but scantily to economic importance. We are 



VI PREFACE. 

engaged upon a group of languages of the most elemental character, a 
speech wherein the parts of speech have but just begun to make their 
appearance. That in itself would be matter of no great moment, 
for we know many languages of the isolating type. That which is 
of particular value herein is that we find ourselves engaged with a 
language family in which we can discover the beginnings of human 
speech. We find ourselves made witnesses of the man who can 
emit a cry because he has the animal equipment of a throat and 
lungs, and we see that man, with a sentient mind to give him the 
impulse of progress, striving by rude and uncouth mouthings to 
attain to facility in the use of the consonants which make speech. 
It will be an acceptable reward of pleasant toil if it shall be found 
that the Polynesian language family is capable of affording us a 
true knowledge of a genesis of the speech of man. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Chapter I. The Problem of Melanesia i 

Inosculation of the Melanesian and the Polynesian languages and the determi- 
nation of values therein. — The position of Melanesia. — Viti an area of the 
mingling of the two stocks.— Polynesia has charmed and Melanesia revolted 
their discoverers; our acquaintance with the latter therefore falls short of 
our knowledge of the former. — Islands of the Polynesian verge. — Polyne- 
sian inclusions. — Languages which borrow. 

Chapter II. The Dictionary of EfaU 5 

Most of the accessible vocabularies are very scanty.— Only three Melanesian 
dictionaries, those of Mota, Efatd, and Viti, are at all considerable.— The 
development of Macdonald's theory of Semitic origin. — His Efate 
dictionary and its false lexicography. — Some words hidden from sight. — 
Clumsiness in the definition. — Introduction of polemic dishonesty. — His 
false etymology. — No clear distinction of several dialects. 

Chapter III. Sawaiori Migrations 13 , 

Paucity of our knowledge of the Melanesian origins. — They may be autoch- 
thons. — ^There are two principal theories of Polynesian migrations. — The 
sieve theory and the argument of Thilenius in its behalf .—A spurious tale 
of seven times seven retailed by Deeken. — The general migration theory. — 
Tregear's statement that this is the commonly accepted hypothesis. — Percy 
Smith in its support. — A fallacy into which Thilenius has been led. — Per- 
sisting memories of an inferior race once encountered. — The log of one of 
the great voyages. 

Chapter IV. The First Polynesian Home 25 f 

A race always under an eastward momentum. — No positive statement of the 
place of origin possible. — Bopp proposed an Aryan source. — Max Miiller 
connected it with the Turanian stock. — Logan regarded the Ganges valley 
as the ancient home. — Macdonald's Semitic theory of a great and widely 
diffused Oceanic language set forth at large. 

Chapter V. Dissection of the Theory 31 

The result of independent treatment of the data should be identical. — As the 
other elements have long been known and carefully studied, the Melane- 
sian is the critical test. — The computation of exactly what material is now 
made available for study. — In what proportion the Efatd vocabulary con- 
tributes to the solution of the problem and the manner in which properly 
it may be employed. 

Chapter VI. EfaU and Viti and Polynesia 35 

Comparison of the vowels of the Melanesian element of Efat6 and Viti. — The 
establishment of consonantal variety. — Assumption of a parent speech from 
which these deviate. — Viti appears to be the younger son. — ^The compar- 
ison continued through the Sawaiori element of Viti. — Viti, Samoan, and 
their parent speech, the Proto-Samoan. — Comparison of Efate with Poly- 
nesia and summation of results. — The extent to which Efate identifications 
penetrate into Polynesia. — Argument from recorded anomalies. — It is im- 
probable that Efat€ received its Polynesian content through westward drift 
of castaways. — Proof that this element came through the migration of the 
Proto-Samoan wanderers. — Check-list of Polynesian phonetic mutations. 

VII 



VIII CONTENTS. 

Chaptbr VII. Polynesian Relics throughout Melanesia 55 

Check-list of the material for this section of the work. — ^Tables of the phonetic 
relations of 81 languages of the Melanesian archipelagoes. — The several 
mutations of vowels and consonants and the languages which employ 
them. — Analysis of these mutations, those which are found in Polynesia 
and those confined to Melanesia. — The groundwork of Polynesian muta- 
tion and the Melanesian system compared therewith. — ^Two Melanesian 
foci of Polynesian influence brought to light. — The sieve theory disproved 
by this material. — Proof of the general migration theory. — Crop colonies 
and the important part they play. — ^Two tracks of Proto-Samoan migration 
through Melanesia. — Proof that a Melanesian sojourn preceded the settle- 
ment of Samoa. 

Chapter VIII. Sawaiori Material in Indonesia 151 

Limitation of the points of inquiry. — Check-list of the Indonesian material. — 
Synoptical tables of mutation varieties. — Mutations compared with the 
systems of the Pacific languages. — Character and probable place of the 
contact of Indonesian and Polynesian. — ^The nature of an ethnic swarm 
discussed. — ^The Malay advance was an affair of outposts. — ^Whence arose 
the speech community, which after all is a matter of but a gross of words. — 
The Indonesians are shown to be borrowers. — Two lines of Sawaiori escape 
through the Malay archipelago lead to the two tracks identified through 
Melanesia. — ^The designation Malayo-Polynesian should be discarded 
because false. 

Ch.\pTER IX. The Sawaiori Beginning Rests Unknown 175 

Check-list of the Semitic words for which affinity has been sought. — Failure of 
the effort to identify this material with Sawaiori stock. — The reasons lie 
in false definitions and irregularity of phonetic principles. — The Semitic 
does not conform to the laws of the family. — Summation of the results of 
this inquiry. — ^The two Sawaiori swarms, the earlier through Melanesia, 
the latter not yet discovered on the face of the trackless sea. — The double 
migration track in the western Pacific. — The problem of the Melanesians 
has been considered only in so far as they have been affected by the wan- 
dering Sawaiori. — End of the classification which has joined Malay and 
Polynesian. — ^The beginning of the great Polynesian race is lost in west- 
ward and empty sea. 

Appendix i. Data and Notes 185 

Appendix 2. The Southern Gateway 433 

Appendix 3. Bibliography 493 



The Polynesian Wanderings 

Tracks of the Migration Deduced from an Examination 

of the Proto-Samoan Content of Efate and 

other Languages of Melanesia 



I» 



CHAPTER I. 
THE PROBLEM OF MELANESIA. 

Inosculation of the Melanesian and the Polynesian languages and the 
determination of values therein — The position of Melanesia — Viti an 
area of the mingling of the two stocks — Polynesia has charmed and 
Melanesia revolted their discoverers; our acquaintance with the latter 
therefore falls short of our knowledge of the former — Islands of the 
Polynesian verge — Polynesian inclusions — Languages which borrow. 

Based upon the possession of a greater mass of material than we 
have ever enjoyed for the examination of any one of the languages 
of the islands of the Western Pacific, the purpose of this work is to 
present such determinations of ascertainable values in the inoscula- 
tion of the Melanesian and the Polynesian tongues as the present 
state of our knowledge may be found to warrant. We shall find it 
convenient, in due course, to list a brief bibliography of such works 
as have become available in the study of this topic. These inter- 
esting and valued works of my predecessors in this tangled field will 
be fotind to lie in two classes, the record of data and the discussion 
based upon such data. 

The publication of Dr. Macdonald's studies in the speech of Efate, 
eagerly welcomed and as warmly reprobated, has seemed to make 
it incumbent upon me to engage more intimately upon the prose- 
cution of the studies whose results are offered in the present volume. 
His work upon Bfate falls into each class. It is a considerable 
vocabulary of a speech largely Melanesian ; it is a labored essay to 
build a structure of criticism and comment upon this material. We 
shall welcome it in its former capacity as a long stride onward in 
our knowledge of Melanesia; we shall find it quite as necessary to 
subject its argumentative deductions to rigid scrutiny, in which our 
interest is to remain cordial even though our judgment prove 
adverse. 

The least known of the trine division of the Pacific, Melanesia 
affords the most numerous and the greatest problems which confront 
those of us who have given time and have expended thought upon 
the study of the life of man in the South Sea. These problems are 
of two sorts. One great class consists of the problems internal to 
Melanesia itself, the other has to do with the problems of the Poly- 
nesian ethnic and linguistic stock. Being problems of human life, 
they are by no means discrete. The closer into them our examina- 
tion carries us the more intimately do we learn the interdependence 
of the problems of the one sort upon the problems of the other. 



2 the; POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Considered geographically, Melanesia is a unit easy of definition, 
save at its northern projection where it impinges upon areas in one 
direction known to be Papuan and in another upon yet other areas 
known to be Indonesian. The islands (to which the skin pigmen- 
tation of the inhabitants, in marked contrast with that of their 
neighbors eastward, has made it a simple metaphor to apply the 
designation of the Black Islands) lie in a loose linking of chains a 
thousand miles offshore from the northeastern coast of Australia, 
and in their extent in a roughly northwest direction they closely 
parallel that coast. The southern verge of this area falls little short 
of the Tropic of Capricorn ; its northern limit lies almost exactly on 
the Equator. These limits are, respectively, the considerable land 
mass of New Caledonia and the tiny islets of the Admiralty Group. 
Reckoning northward from New Caledonia, we include in the larger 
subdivision of the area the Loyalty Group, the New Hebrides, the 
Banks Group, the Solomon Islands, and the Bismarck Archipelago. 
The designation of this last component we owe to a colonizing zeal 
which has proved sufficiently potent to act upon the Germans, 
geographers as well as statesmen, in blunting a sense of common 
geographical propriety. The islands had borne the names of New 
Britain, New Ireland, the Duke of York, and New Hanover, collec- 
tively the New Britannia Archipelago, so long and so familiarly that 
it was force rather than any necessity which new-named them Neu- 
Pommem, Neu-Mecklenburg, Neu-Lauenburg, and dedicated them 
in totality to the then Iron Chancellor. A geographical sin, unfortu- 
nately a sin accomplished. 

The Fijian Archipelago may or may not be included in Melanesia ; 
all depends upon the interpretation of certain well-defined problems 
of its own. Geographically it is not necessary so to include it, for 
it lies remote, out of the northwest chain, set by itself in its own 
sea midway between the scarcely contaminated Melanesia of New 
Caledonia and the equally uncorrupted Polynesia of Samoa and 
Tonga, the region to which I have assigned the convenient designa- 
tion of Nuclear Polynesia. Ethnically and philologically Viti must 
be acknowledged to lie in a position of mixture of the two neighbor 
stocks. I know that I go beyond many, if not all, of my fellow 
workers in weighing the Polynesian element in Viti. 

While with this exception we find Melanesia a well-defined unit 
upon the charts we are by no means quahfied to decide if this unity 
extends to the ethnography and philology of the region, and that 
because of our lack of consistent information. We are sadly deficient 
in the necessary data, for Melanesia has received scant attention. 

While Polynesia has attracted, Melanesia has repelled its dis- 
coverers. About the islands of the central tract of ocean romance 
has cast its charm; its power remains even in these later days. 



THE PROBLEM OF MEIvANESIA. 3 

Sensitive natures have counted the world well lost for the enjoyment 
of its delights; ignorant men have yielded to the same compulsion 
and have found dingy pleasure in settling down as beachcombers. 
The great nations have sent brave fleets to the exploration of these 
islands, have lent their most competent administrators to foster the 
states of island monarchs. The people have won those who came to 
seek them; they have been treated as gentlefolk. 

But Melanesia is a volume whose chapters are horror upon horror. 
The islands of this western area lack the charm which holds the eye 
upon the atoll with its palm tiara or upon the towering summits 
forest-clad and necklaced with cascades so familiar in the Polynesian 
scene. The people of Melanesia have an aspect more savage than 
the statuesque dignity of the Polynesian. It does no violence to 
the sense of the fitness of things to look upon them as a servile crew. 
It was only upon the score of our morals, not of social propriety, 
that objection was raised to the labor trade in Melanesia, a form 
of slavery to which the Polynesian never was subjected. Explorers 
in Melanesia have relatively been few. Missionary endeavor was 
slow to attack this field of crying need, and when the missions did 
effect a lodgment in this dark region of the sea the pioneers were 
members of a sect which affected repugnance toward all matters 
which make solely for broader culture. From many the crown of 
martyrdom was not withheld. Yet that blessing was, after all, indi- 
vidual; we compare the information derived from the Melanesian 
missionaries with the treasures of scholarship which mark the work 
of their fellows in Polynesia, and we deplore the comparison. 

Of such sort are the reasons wherewith we must account to our- 
selves for the fact that Melanesia yet remains to the student almost 
wholly in darkness and gross darkness upon the people, and that 
the light which here and there in a random ray has been shed upon 
its problems must first be subjected to close analysis. 

In the early lines of this chapter use has been made of the term 
inosculation of the Melanesian and Pol)aiesian tongues. It is now 
in order to define the nature of the approximation of these two 
language series within the Melanesian area. 

We have first the several islands wholly or principally inhabited 
by folk of Polynesian race and speech, yet lying within the region 
which geographically is classed as Melanesia. Such, among others 
in a short list, are Aniwa and Fotuna,* Sikayana, Ticopia, Liueniua,! 

*This spelling having been in some general use, I find it a convenient means of 
differentiation from the Futuna of Nuclear Polynesia. 

t"The name of this atoll as given on the chart is Leueaeuwa, but the name, I think, 
is wrongly spelled, as it bears no meaning that I know of in any Polynesian language. 
The proper spelling is Le ua Niua. This was certainly the way in which I wrote it 
before I knew of the other spelling, and the Samoan who was with me also spelled it in 
the same way." The Rev. G. Brown, D. D., "Reports of the Australasian Association 
for the Advancement of Science," IX, 258. 



4 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Tauu, Nukumanu, Nuguria, Rennel,* and Moiki. Since these islands 
represent the western Umit of Polynesian race and Polynesian speech, 
we may name them the islands of Polynesia's western verge, or sim- 
ply and briefly the Polynesian verge. 

In the next class we find small communities on islands with an 
otherwise Melanesian population, where Polynesian speech is spoken 
by folk presenting sometimes more and sometimes less of Pol3aiesian 
race traits. Under this designation come, among others, Mae in 
the New Hebrides (on the island known as Three Hills) and Fileni 
in the Swallow Group. To this class of traces of Polynesian origin 
we shall apply the term the Pol)mesian inclusions. 

Necessarily the foregoing classes are limited in the number of the 
instances properly to be assembled under one or the other. The 
third class is more widely extended than we are yet in a position 
to estimate. This class is to include all the instances in which we 
find peoples of Melanesian stock and speaking languages prepon- 
derantly non-Polynesian, who yet derive some portion of their 
vocabulary from Polynesian loan material. For convenience we use 
this term, recognizing that the subject is open to argument. In a 
diagrammatic scheme of the possibilities it is as antecedently pos- 
sible also that the Polynesian has borrowed from the Melanesian, 
or that the common element derives in Melanesian and Polynesian 
from an earlier imdistributed source. Yet I have no hesitation in 
anticipating the result of the argument and describing this common 
matter as Polynesian loan material. It is this latter topic which 
is principally to engage our attention in this work. 

At this point it seems proper to invite attention to the appendix 
introducing a bibliography of the published matter which has been 
consulted and which has yielded more or less of assistance in the 
study of this topic. This will be found on pages 493-506. 

*A word of explanation may not be out of place as to the unequal dealing with the 
names of the twin islands Rennel and Bellona. These are chart names and secondary 
in rank to the names in use by the islanders. For Bellona we have the valuable record 
of Dr. Sidney H. Ray, who has recorded its vocabulary under the name Moi-ki; the 
hyphen is wrongly placed through a typographical error, as has been pointed out by 
W. von Bulow; I prefer to standardize the name with other Polynesian forms and there- 
fore omit the h)T3hen. The name of Rennel is cited by Wawn and by Thilenius as 
Muava or Mungava; probably it should be Moava, but as my notes are not positive I 
hesitate to adopt the form. Thilenius makes the distinct statement that Moiki has no 
fixed population and is no more than a fishing station for the people of Rennel. This 
is not in accord with my observation nor with that of Captain Wawn, who has written 
an interesting narrative of the long search for his home in which he assisted a labor boy 
who had been carried away to Queensland. The home was found at last in Moiki, which 
Wawn calls Mungiki. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE DICTIONARY OF EFAT^. 

Most of the accessible vocabularies are very scanty — Only three Mel- 
anesian dictionaries (those of Mota, Efat^ and Viti) are at all consider- 
able — The development of Macdonald's theory of Semitic origin — His 
Efatd dictionary and its false lexicography — Some words hidden from 
sight — Clumsiness in the definition — Introduction of polemic dishon- 
esty — His false etymology — No clear distinction of several dialects. 

Quantitatively regarded, the lists presented in the bibliography- 
seem to show that we have no inconsiderable material bearing more 
or less directly upon the philological problems of the islands of the 
Western Pacific chain. When investigated more closely, when 
measured in a qualitative analysis, the tale is far other. Many of 
these vocabularies, so diligently sought and so sedulously treasured, 
are mere lists of but a score or so of words and often of problematical 
accuracy in reporting. In very few cases have they been subjected 
to intelligent criticism. Yet they are by no means to be despised. 
They are the best we have, and with them we must perforce be 
content imtil future exploration affords better data. 

We have in the Melanesian tract but three vocabularies of any 
considerable magnitude. The dictionary of the Fijian is of inesti- 
mable value, a storehouse of information; yet it has been found to 
yield its most valuable results when associated with more strictly 
Polynesian investigations. The Mota dictionary is of far lower order, 
yet none the less is it a valuable implement of Melanesian study. 
The Bfatd dictionary is by far our best contribution of data upon 
which is to rest the science of Melanesian speech; and this hearty com- 
mendation must be kept in mind through all the adverse criticism 
which it will be necessary to pass upon it in many details. 

Dr. Macdonald awakens our envy when we note the opportunity 
he has enjoyed for the study of the speech and the habit of Efat^, 
thirty-five years spent in the search into the language and the 
mind of this interesting family of Melanesians, a study directed 
solely to the attainment of such knowledge as should better fit him 
to become the guide of the souls to whose cure he had been sent in 
the isles of the sea at the uttermost parts of the earth. 

In the bibliography it will be observed that in 1882 he exhibited 
his Semitic theory to the Royal Society of Victoria. In 1889 he 
presented it anew and in richer development in "Oceania." At 
intervals he has contributed minutely prepared papers to the Journal 
of the Polynesian Society exhibiting yet further argument in behalf 
of his theory. Now he has attained to such a mass of evidence, 



6 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

SO satisfactory to himself, that he feels justified in entitling his 
latest work "The Oceanic Languages — Origin," rather than the 
dictionary of Bfate, which it really is. His Semitic theory we shall 
have to study in a later chapter of this work; at this point we feel 
it proper to comment upon the work as dictionary alone and freed 
from its speculative adornments. 

An initial and serious objection to the work is that it is devoid 
of even the slightest summary or sketch of the grammar of the 
language. True there is an introductory section of well nigh a 
hundred pages to which a hint in the title points as grammar. Yet 
in the whole treatise there is not so much as a single page by read- 
ing which the student may arrive at any comprehension of the 
manner in which to combine into sentences the words so plentifully 
listed in the vocabulary; there is no hint by which he may be 
directed in the use of these many words as actual speech expressive 
of the thoughts he would convey. Despite its presence where a 
grammar is properly to be expected, this assemblage of introductory 
chapters is the argument of a fine-spun theory, interesting to phi- 
lologists, yet wholly useless lumber to the person who must rely 
upon this work as his introduction to the speech of Efate. 

So little has Dr. Macdonald understood the proper purpose of a 
dictionary-maker that he will not even head his vocabulary for what 
it really is, but prefers the polemical statement of his dear theory in 
the title "The Oceanic Languages, their Material or Vocabulary Set 
Forth in a Complete Dictionary Comparative and Etymological of 
One of Them, the Language of Ef at^. " It is only as an afterthought, 
deferred to the last possible moment, that the man who has spent 
more than a generation in the study consents to affix its title to the 
really valuable part of his work. 

Such a mental attitude on the part of a lexicographer, the gran- 
deur of his privilege to record that which is being so completely 
obscured in his zeal to register what he fondly imagines ought to 
be, is difficult of comprehension to those of us who content our- 
selves through busy years of dictionary-making. Yet this attitude 
is not new with Dr. Macdonald; it is well known that Webster 
refused to sully the first edition of his great dictionary of the English 
language by including the word "bridegroom," which merely existed 
in English speech and had no right to exist, yet in the end he failed 
to secure currency for "bridegoom." With this record of lexico- 
graphic pertinacity we are ready to make due allowances for the 
outcrop of the theory which to Dr. Macdonald means so much. 

To what extent this dictionary answers the author's character- 
ization of "complete" we have no means of ascertaining. I prefer 
to record the fact that it contains 3,657 word entries, a fact estab- 
lished by my own tally. This gives us a positive measure "and 



THE DICTIONARY OF EFATE. 7 

establishes at once the great superiority of the Efate dictionary 
over all Melanesian word collections. It is of inestimable value to 
us by reason of its comprehensiveness as speech record. 

When we examine carefully and in detail this work in the aspect 
of that which must represent its permanent value, that which will 
remain after the demolition of the theories of which it is made the 
vehicle, namely, its value as a dictionary of the Efate speech, our 
criticism will fall broadly into two classes, the mechanical and the 
sense characteristics. 

The former class is but a particularization of the postulate that 
lexicography has grown into a science with no little exactitude in 
its method. Without close study of the principles of the science, 
it is wholly impossible for any student of language, no matter how 
intimate may be his knowledge of the speech upon which his study 
has been directed, to win success as a lexicographer solely by 
reason of his familiarity with his language theme. Sage as Dr. 
Macdonald is in all that pertains to the speech of Efat6, he makes 
all the typical errors of the tmskilled dictionary-maker. 

In a dictionary the alphabetical order of entries is necessarily 
supreme. Almost any page at random in this work will exhibit 
instances where the entries capsize the alphabetical order. Our 
author will undoubtedly explain his inversions on the score that 
thus he is able to keep together stems and derivative forms which 
on the alphabetical system would be scattered. It is hardly worth 
while remarking that the user of a dictionary has the right to demand 
that the word of which he is in search shall be foimd in its proper 
place. I may note that in the most assiduous use of this dictionary, 
extending over many months of close examination, I have not 
succeeded in conquering my annoyance at the difficulty of finding 
many a word which is not in the place where it should be; in fact 
that I have been able to make use of it only after the compilation 
of an index — an index to a dictionary ! 

If this is the case in the mere arrangement of the words on the 
page, where a misplacement entails no greater hardship than a 
search through one or more of the neighboring pages, what shall 
we say of those forms which are secreted — it may be pages away 
and under a different initial — in some entry from which they may 
be extracted only through a knowledge of the language far beyond 
those who are likely to use this work? For the exhibition of this 
blemish we may cite the noun jutei, the white ant, the entry con- 
taining note of the variant forms mitoi and mitei; yet neither of 
these forms, though equally in use, occupies its alphabetic position 
by so much as the merest tag of a cross-reference; to a student of 
Efate encountering the word mitei and seeking its meaning this 
dictionary would offer no help. 



8 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

In the latter class of criticism we note that many of the defini- 
tions are so clumsy as to suggest that the author had very slight 
knowledge of what the English name is of objects which he is describ- 
ing. This is notably illustrated in the definition 

sumili, a thing like india rubber in a clam shell which, when touched, causes the 
shell to close. 

This fairly parallels the entry in Shirley Baker's Tonga dictionary 
of "balolo, a reptile much like the earthworm found in the sea." 

In further showing of Dr. Macdonald's ineptitude in definition 
we note the following, somewhat at random : 

alo-fi, wave (with a circular and rolling motion) to him, to beckon to. 

atu saki, plop up (of a turtle, also of the sound of the breath in the throat of a 

man recovering from a faint or dying) . 
beingo, a kind of flute (coconut shell). 
bisa, to utter inarticulate sounds (as those made by a coconut on the gravel 

which a rat is turning about trying to get at its kernel) . 
nakasu nabwo na, the cartilaginous substance on the front of the throat, lit. the 

stick, or tree, of the bwo (pectus). 
kita roa sa, to hate turning after him (someone), as a boy sent a message meeting 

another boy and (hating to do the message) turns after him to play. 
libu, lebu, the middle of the lower part of the body at the upper part of the back 

of the pelvis. 

These are sins of ignorance, and ignorance, though stupid, is at 
least innocent. In general, in my work upon these dictionaries 
coming first hand from missionaries who lay no claim to skill in the 
arts of lexicography, I have welcomed the naivetd and have employed 
the definition wherever its terms have not been too ridiculous. They 
are original documents ; their simplicity is their warrant of honesty. 
In some former paper, I believe, I have mentioned the care with 
which I have refrained from recasting these definitions and the 
reasons therefor. Such sins as have been here presented we are 
glad to forgive. Our glee at their discovery carries no malice. 

But when the definition begins to squint at something ulterior, 
when a word is added with the sly insinuation of a purpose to link 
the fact and the theory more tightly, when definition becomes 
polemic, such exhibitions I do not hesitate to stamp as scientific 
dishonesty; they prove an absence of conscience, without which 
speculation is mere trickery held in check only by consideration of 
the risk of discovery. 

A very few instances here (the volume abounds with such and 
they will receive detailed attention in the critical notes) will suffice 
to show at this point that my characterization is not lacking in 
support. 

tere, the mast (of a canoe or ship), calf (column) of the leg; Arabic, sariyat, sari, 
the mast of a ship, a column. 

If Dr. Macdonald's compelling Semitic theory had not already pro- 
duced a moral strabismus of the insight, is it to be imagined that he 



THE DICTIONARY OP EF'ATE. 9 

would have cast into a parenthesis that word "column" in explica- 
tion or suggestion of an explication of the sense of calf? That 
offensive and offending parenthesis was not set into the definition 
innocently. 

alo, to swim (wave hands). 

The parenthesis is expressly for the purpose of linking it with the 
verb alo-fi, which I have already cited for its clumsiness of definition. 

bare, to be dirty-looking, like a sightless eye (of half-raw food) ; Hebrew 'avar, 

Ethiopia 'awir, to be blind. 
bwes, besu, a young pig whose mother is dead and which is brought up as a pet 

and is therefore tame and gentle; also a motherless child, so called from 

being deprived of the mother's milk and, as it were, arid; Arabic yabisa, to 

be dry. 

The same leering argument will appear in the study of ngoko (95), 
where he introduces hack in definition of Hebrew hakah. If his use 
of italics has any meaning at all it must be intended to mark his 
obiter dictum that the name of the Teutonic ax is Semitic. And 
this in a work of polemical philology! 

Such childish efforts to misdirect the comprehension arouse 
repugnance ; they cast upon the whole work a suspicion which really 
it does not deserve. The result of such discoveries of obliquity is 
that one loses confidence in each uncorroborated point in the book. 
To many students it will render the work valueless. Yet so far as 
my acquaintance with the speech of Efate extends, reinforced by a 
considerable familiarity with other tongues of Melanesia and of 
Polynesia, I have no hesitation in repeating my former statement 
that this is far and away the most valuable contribution to our 
knowledge of the speech of the Western Pacific. 

It is not only when Dr. Macdonald espies the chance to lug in his 
Semitic theory that he takes unwarranted liberties. He etymol- 
ogizes generalities on materials which do not reach beyond the two 
entrances to Havannah Harbor. 

binauta, to be numb, devoid of feeling, as one's limb from stoppage of circulation 
of the blood in it: bi, to be, ndta, a person (as if the limb belonged to some 
other person). 

bcltua na, the knee, prob. bau, the head, and tua, leg. 

kuruku, the ankle is so called because the leg gathers itself, as it were, into the 
knob of the joint. 

To these three add tere, as presented a little earlier. It is quite 
fortuitous that no less than four glaring errors have to do with the 
leg ; one can but wonder how it has come about that Dr. Macdonald 's 
legs have proved such unruly members. 

Yet another grave fault vitiates this dictionary as speech record. 
The author supplies a copious store of variant forms for many words, 
each ticketed with the simple notation of "d.," meaning dialectic. 
Nowhere is any hint afforded us of the habitat of such dialects. 



10 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Efate is not a large island, yet in every smallest Melanesian island 
we are sure to find dialects from village to village, often amounting 
to such extensive variation as to produce incomprehensibility. It 
would have added clarity to this record if Dr. Macdonald had identi- 
fied these dialects by their place names, if by nothing else. 

As it is, we are left without the knowledge of what is the speech 
which he assumes as the standard from which these dialects diverge. 
It is inferential, and only inferential, that he has assumed for such 
standard the speech in the community nearest his mission station; 
that is to say, one of several petty villages on Havannah Harbor. 
Since the seat of the administration of the New Hebrides is at Vila, 
in a different bay, it is possible that the speech there in use may tend 
to become standard for official communication; yet not a single 
entry in connection with these comprehensively noted dialectic 
variants indicates which are Vila forms. 

More than this. In the examination of Kfate material presented 
in extenso in a succeeding chapter we have felt a grievous loss in the 
inability to coordinate the several dialects in order that we might 
study the several systems of vowel and consonant mutation, a 
matter of vital importance. The most we can say from the study 
of this dictionary is that at one spot on Efate, presumably proximate 
to the mission station, the people use this word, other peoples at 
one or more undefined places on Kfate use this or that other and 
frequently quite dissimilar word. To what a disadvantage this 
necessarily puts the student appears in quantities that may be 
measured in two brief Efate vocabularies,* upon which we had to 
rely before Dr. Macdonald 's dictionary was published. From Hans 
Conon von der Gabelentzf we learn that one of these vocabularies 
comes from Mele, the other from Erakor on the south coast of the 
island. The two lists contain resembling words to the number of 
26, all lying within their common Polynesian content. The Mele 
list, numbering 118 words, shows no less than 87 words immediately 
recognizable as Polynesian; the Erakor list, numbering 121 words, 
shows but 27 of Polynesian source. Mele is the language spoken 
between Havannah Harbor and Vila; Erakor, on the south coast, 
has the mountain center of the island between it and the mission 
station which we have inferred to be the seat of Dr. Macdonald 's 
standard speech. Yet the Erakor dialect, and not the nearer Mele, 
most accords with this dictionary. With this suggestion of the 
magnitude of the dialectic differences we shall feel great uncer- 
tainty as to the results of the more intimate inspection of this 
dictionary record upon which we are to enter. Dr. Macdonald sis 
the one man who knows these dialects apart; it was his duty .to 

*Turner, "Samoa a hundred years ago and long before," page 354. 
f Die melanesischen Sprachen II, i. 



THE DICTIONARY OF KFATE. 11 

differentiate them for the benefit of others who must rely upon his 
accuracy.* 

No one can regret more than I the necessity under which I lie to 
pass such comments as those which have preceded. Yet let it be 
well understood that they are by no means conclusions superficially 
drawn. The difficulties mentioned have been encountered by me in 
no mere casual glance at the work, but have arisen to hamper me 
in my close study to learn this language from the material here 
afforded. How close this study has been will be shown in the follow- 
ing discussions, in which it will appear that the words have been 
analyzed down to the very letters of which they are composed. 

Despite these great drawbacks, despite a still greater fault yet to 
be discussed, I would not recede from the characterization which I 
have presented and which I have reiterated. Imperfect as it proves 
itself to be. Dr. Macdonald's dictionary is amply the most valuable 
contribution to our knowledge of any speech of Melanesia. 

*Even as these pages are passing to print I am in opportune receipt of a letter from 
Captain Rason, until quite recently British commissioner in the New Hebrides. This 
letter affords us valuable information upon this very point and not ungracefully mani- 
fests the writer's true kindness of heart. 

"I wish to explain as soon as possible, if possible in time for your book, the inner 
meaning of Dr. Macdonald's muddle. When the missionaries established themselves on 
Efat6 he was in Havannah Harbor, and natives who first became Christians left their 
villages and came to the mission station for protection. Thus the language of the mis- 
sion station became a medley of all the dialects around. This gradually coalesced into 
a special dialect which became a lingua franca with the natives and was partially under- 
stood by all. As the heathen natives died out or became Christian the mission language 
was claimed as the language of the island. Then the Bible was translated into this 
language and Dr. Macdonald wrote a dictionary of it as if the missionary language was 
the original language of the various villages before they were Christian. The poor man 
only deceived himself and is now deceiving others, but it is not wilful scientific dishonesty. 
I should like him cleared of that. It is a case of self-deception." 



CHAPTER III. 

SAWAIORI MIGRATIONS. 

Paucity of our knowledge of the Melanesian origins — They may be 
autochthons — ^There are two principal theories of Polynesian migra- 
tions — The sieve theory and the argument of Thilenius in its 
behalf — A spurious tale of seven times seven retailed by Deeken — 
The general migration theory — Tregear's statement that this is the 
commonly accepted hypothesis — Percy Smith in its support — A 
fallacy into which Thilenius has been led — Persisting memories of an 
inferior race once encountered — The log of one of the great voyages. 

Thus far we have considered the work in respect of its status as 
an Efat^ dictionary, a status which it has comported with Dr. 
Macdonald's lucubrations in the realm of theory to adumbrate in 
the text even as he has buried it as an afterthought in the title. 

Before advancing upon his main theme, the theory and effort at 
substantiation of a Semitic origin for the languages of the Pacific, 
we shall find it well to devote some consideration to the present 
state of our opinion as to the movement in migration which has 
brought to the Pacific area the peoples now spread to its remotest 
isles. 

So far as relates to migrations of the Melanesian peoples, we are 
wholly without information. This work of Dr. Macdonald is practi- 
cally the first essay toward giving any of the Melanesians a race 
history anterior to their residence upon the islands which they now 
inhabit. Until this or some other theory is properly estabhshed, 
we can do no more than to regard them as ex hypothesi autochthons. 
If future students of their life and thought succeed in bringing to 
light traditions which may point to a movement over seas from an 
older to their present homes, then we shall have a basis on which 
to found new speculations. Until such a time arrive we shall find 
it better to stand on the commonly accepted hypothesis. 

But in the case of the brown Polynesian race the circumstances 
are far other. We have ample traditions of migration, we have 
the names of the halting-places; we find a whole race, widely sun- 
dered upon the sea, looking back to the west with a single gaze to an 
ancestral home. We have here and there the belief in westward 
Pulotu as the abode of the dead; no mean proof, since the dead go 
home. Above all we have the primordial Hawaiki across the great 
sea of Kiwa, the illuminating Saba myth, than which no tradition 
of men has ever had a wider extent. 

13 



14 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

In so far as this element of knowledge impinges upon Melanesian 
areas we have theories which have been elaborated to account for 
the recognized inosculation of brown Polynesian and black Melane- 
sian. Omitting mention, as here unnecessary, of movements of 
convection within the general migrating mass, we find two main 
theories ably propounded and stoutly argued. Each will receive 
our attention to the extent in which it bears upon the phenomena 
of this inosculation. 

We are first to examine the theory which may be not inaptly 
designated the sieve theory. In its briefest presentation it is that 
the islands of Melanesia and the Polynesian verge have served as 
the meshes of a net to catch the drift of castaways from islands of 
central Polynesia blown away from home and set to the westward by 
the concurrence of the prevailing winds and currents of that oceanic 
area. Its most recent and not the least ingenious presentation is 
found in the extensive studies of Dr. G. Thilenius,* professor of 
anthropology and ethnology at Breslau. 

His theory is brilliantly conclusive — upon the hydrographic 
charts. Taking the eastern islands of Malaysia as a datum-point, 
he draws the line of least resistance to migrant fleets, the line where 
the current sets them on their way and where the wind blows fair. 
On the chart he dots their track far to the north of New Guinea 
and the Bismarck Archipelago. He gives them successive landfalls 
in the southern Carolines and along the chains of the Marshalls. 
Thence onward to the Gilberts the constants of the weather are 
still in their favor. They make fair weather of it still further to 
the Tokelaus, and at last they come to port in Samoa. Once 
established in central Polynesia, the winds and currents which have 
served them so well become malefic. They blow boats away from 
peaceful shores and out for starving, thirsty voyages upon unfriendly 
seas. If the Melanesian sieve catches any of these involuntary 
wanderers their fate is that of the castaway upon inhospitable shores 
of savagery. In the work cited it is very argutely presented, yet 
it can scarcely be called convincing. 

No one who has had occasion to recognize that the work of the 
real Polynesian research is being to-day, as always, painfully prose- 
cuted by enthusiastic workers in remote islands of the sea, where 
one book is a treasure indeed and library privileges seem no more 
substantial than the seraphic and impossible vision, will regret the 
space here given to a presentation of the arguments of Dr. Thilenius. 
Thus only will they reach earnest students in savage scenes who 
could never have access to the rare and costly work in which these 
arguments are presented. We acknowledge the pleasure in helping 
these distant students, for they are the real workers. 

*Ethnographische Ergebnisse aus Melanesien: Die polynesischen Inseln an der Ost- 
grenze Melanesiens. 



SAWAIORI MIGRATIONS. 15 

After recording known instances of involuntary voyages from 
central Polynesia to the safe landfall of the Polynesian verge, after 
discussing the Polynesian verge as a sieve for such migrations, Dr. 
Thilenius concludes his argument as follows :* 

When one considers the remarkable exiguity of our islands [the Poly- 
nesian verge], of whose surface, furthermore, only a fraction is habitable or 
productive of food, certainly we find an adequate explanation of their 
present population through these involuntary migrations. Whether at 
any former time a Melanesian population of any sort lived upon these 
islands is a question easy to put but hard to decide. No data of any nature 
bear upon this idea. It is possible to hold the idea that there had been a 
Melanesian population, but that for reasons unknown it had withdrawn 
before the coming of the first wanderers, for the earliest settlers on Nuguria 
and Liueniua found the land uninhabited and there is no ground on which 
to set aside their testimony as false. 

Therefore the migration theory needs a brief discussion. Our islands 
might have been halting-places of the peoples swarming from somewhere 
in the northern Moluccas toward Polynesia. These early Polynesians must 
have come hither out of the northwest, fairly enough along the same course 
as was traversed by the boats coming from Ninigo, Taui (?) and Kapinga- 
marangi. That presupposes that our little atolls, at least 800 or 1,000 
years ago, constituted a region offering an adequate supply of vegetation. 
Whether this was the case may readily be questioned on the score of the 
thinness of the soil-layer on the islands to-day. It is always a possibility. 

The wanderers found the islands uninhabited and left behind them, on 
each or on some, a company of those who were travel-weary. But these 
folk, wholly ignorant of geography, in some wonderful fashion hit upon 
the course to the other islands of northwest Polynesia. The knowledge of 
these may have come to them from the fabulous aboriginal Melanesian 
population, who surely, to have been able to give such information, con- 
trary to the character of the present north Melanesians, must have con- 
ducted extended voyages and thus have known one or other of the large 
islands of Melanesia. The wanderers would surely have made sufficient 
inquiry. Yet they prefer to follow a chain of poor atolls instead of seizing 
and holding the great and fertile islands that lay close at hand. They 
had sufficient numbers, for we can think of them only as the complement 
of a fleet. But Buka, which lies so close to Nuguria at which they first 
touched, shows no trace of PoljTiesians.f Then the whole aboriginal Melan- 
esian population of our atoll is become a picture painted by the fancy. 

None the less it is highly probable that the wanderers came to one of 
the great islands, for they sailed hither against the trades, and it is more 
likely that they fell to leeward than that they, ignorant of the situation of 
Samoa, busied themselves to make headway against them. At the least 
it is probable that wind and current set the wanderers westward. That 
not a single boat, on the ten-degree stretch from Nuguria to Sikayana, 
was driven westward by only so much as a degree and a half, which was 
sufficient to bring one of the great islands into sight, is so much the stranger 
since Kilinailau and Nisan lie west of Nuguria and approximately in the 
longitude of Buka. These were originally settled by Pol5Tiesians, and in 

*0p. c, page 78. 

fl can not let this statement go unchallenged. In this work I have collated thirty- 
one vocables from Buka, of which twenty-four are borrowed from the Polynesian, the 
quality being computed at 70 per cent. — W. C. 



16 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

the sense of the migration theory simultaneously with Nuguria. This can 
be understood only on the theory that a part of the fleet, at least on this 
stretch, was set somewhere about two degrees westward. 

Are we then to assume that a people endowed with the energy to enter 
upon a voyage into the unknown were not in condition to set foot on one 
of the great Melanesian islands? Did they find the whole island thickly 
set with towns which beat them back? Had the weeks since they had 
forsaken the homeland caused them to avoid a conflict which would have 
put them into possession of a fertile island in order that on the other hand 
they might follow with marvellous instinct a chain of islets which would 
lead them next to Ticopia, after which they must sail a long voyage on 
the open ocean? And all this against the trades! Furthermore we are 
confident that the wanderers carried with them useful animals and plants. 
Probably they landed some of these upon our islands. What has become 
of them? Tradition and history know them as introduced by settlers or 
altogether the gift of the white men. Have those originally introduced 
perished, have they run out? 

The more we try to establish details of the vo3^age in regard of local 
conditions and the present character of the Polynesians, so much the more 
improbable becomes the thought that strikes us at first glance that our 
atolls were the halting-places of the early Polynesians. 

Readily enough the possibility is suggested in accordance with which 
the wanderers journeyed in close accord with the theory, used the islands 
as stopping-places, etc. But among the multitude of possibilities that 
suggest themselves the exact coincidence would mark this as an astounding 
accident. For not only during the voyage along the Melanesian islands 
must an unusually great series of accidents have been actively at work, but 
in the same measure the same must have been true from the outset of the 
journey. 

The early Polynesian left the Malayan tract, as is properly to be assumed, 
by way of the Celebes Sea and Straits of Molucca and then encountered 
current and wind conditions varying from season to season. From Novem- 
ber to March northwest and north winds blow with interruptions and a 
current sets toward the southeast. In the latter case the Polynesians 
might actually reach our islands. But that implies the beginning of the 
voyage in the bad season. If one takes into consideration the remarkable 
sensitiveness of the Oceanic peoples to rain, almost laughable in our sight, 
he will scarcely admit the conclusion that the Polynesians intentionally 
set forth in the stormy season of the rains. To this is to be added the fact 
that the seasonal change of wind and current which holds in the Pacific 
was unknown to them, for they are assumed to be coming out of regions in 
which this change does not exist in anything like the same fashion. 

Consequently there is much in support of the argument that the early 
Polynesians left the Malay Archipelago during the good season, that is to 
say while the southeast trades' held in the eastern regions. They came 
then immediately into the equatorial countercurrent, which, moreover, 
flows in the northwest season, although with diminished strength ; or they 
were forced into it by the south equatorial current. This area is also the 
region of calms and variables. They were thus especially directed toward 
the current upon which they were necessarily borne. The importance of 
these equatorial currents, which attain a considerable velocity, is known 
through the Spanish attempts to reach the Palaus and from the history 
of boats drifted off from the Carolines. From the Palaus the boats always 
drift to Samar or the southern Philippines (north equatorial current) ; on 



SAWAIORI MIGRATIONS. 17 

the other hand there never came folk from the PhiHppines to the Palaus, 
but only from Celebes and the Celebes Sea (equatorial countercurrent) . 
The journey against these streams is possible only with very favorable 
winds ; they are so considerable that even in the present time the sailing 
vessels of the white men have to take them very largely into the reckoning. 
The schooner in which I went to Ninigo traveled the long stretch from New 
Hanover to Ninigo only with the south equatorial current, and most of the 
time against the stormy but certainly light northwest wind. On the return 
voyage the current was so strong against us that we had a great notion to 
work up to 4° N., where we could catch the countercurrent which would 
help us to an easting from which we could reach southward — that is, back 
to the Gazelle Peninsula. 

The early Polynesians coming out of the Celebes Sea drifted in all prob- 
ability along the southern edge of the Carolines toward the east. With 
this current, not exposed to strong contrary winds, they could reach the 
Gilbert Islands, where local currents make their appearance ; among them 
such as would set them southeast, even through the Bllice group. Accord- 
ingly, on meteorological grounds, the Polynesians voyaged, not along the 
Melanesian islands, but by a straight course through Micronesia, and 
reached Samoa, whose Savai'i may have been the prototype of Hawaiki. 
Perhaps the boats drifted still farther to Fanning Island, in order to reach 
Samoa. There are many possibilities in a region where the countercurrent 
has less force than between the Moluccas and the Gilberts. This is not the 
place to follow out the further distribution of the wanderers after they had 
once reached the present Polynesia. But that an importance attaches to 
the countercurrent for migration theories, particularly in its western part, 
is clear from the phenomena of the flora. Its distribution is such that the 
botanical boundary incloses central Polynesia, Viti in part, next the Ellice 
and Gilbert groups, finally the Carolines, as closer to India, while Melanesia 
forms a province of its own. The men and the plants of Polynesia, there- 
fore, must be regarded as having migrated along the same track. Would it 
not be intelligible that to the Pol)Tiesian, who came from the rich Moluccas, 
the atolls would be less pleasurable and after a short sojourn they swept 
farther along until at last they reached again a better endowed, a moun- 
tainous, and a greater island, Samoa? 

Considerations such as these, of which much is lacking to the theory, 
suggest themselves with divers variations. Here, before all things, should 
there be but a single probability, it would be of significance for the further 
fate of the early Polynesians who reached the equatorial counterstream, 
and for the case that they migrated from Halmahera, in favor of which are 
many good arguments. 

The initial point of the wandering is of great importance for our chain 
of islands, for upon that it depends with great probability that the early 
Polynesians did not come to Nuguria, etc. This would not be altered by 
the arrival in Liueniua of the boat from Kapingamarangi, for the conditions 
of current allow us to recognize with certainty such voyages as exceptional. 
We can make our account always and only with typical phenomena. Wind 
and current conditions do not allow a decision at variance with the tradi- 
tions of our islanders, which seem all the more credible since the industrial 
products as yet met with on the islands quite confirm the essential points 
of all these statements. The peopling of the northwestern Polynesian 
islands quite uniformly has its origin in small beginnings, through the 
coming to shore of crews of for the most part single boats, and through 
infrequent raiding expeditions. The great majority of the immigrants; 



18 THS POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

came hither from the east, from Micronesian and from Polynesian groups ; 
a distinctly smaller portion went out from Melanesia, a movement which 
did not assume larger proportions until it came to the southern islands of 
the series on account of the more peaceful relations with the southern 
Solomons, with the Deni Group (Santa Cruz), and other neighbors. 

It is easy to point out the easy way upon the charts and to prove 
it easy. To us, in these days of veritable islands which make their 
way across the seas under impulse of mighty enginery, it is easy 
to feel convinced that if Polynesians ever did travel far and wide 
over the stormy ocean in frail canoes held together with stitches, 
they must have selected the course where the resistance was least. 
So far a most excellent case has been made out. 

But the Polynesians were the most hardy race of daring navi- 
gators that the world has ever known. They know which way 
they came, they have preserved the logs of these ancient voyages 
when yet the sea was all their own, theirs alone. They were not 
afraid of the sea, they fought it, and they had no charts to point 
them to an easier traverse.* 

Before we proceed to further examination, it seems proper to 
interject a brief mention of another presentation of the theory to 
whose support Dr. Thilenius has brought all the resources of his 
great acumen. The presentation upon which I would animadvert 
does not pretend to be a scientific statement. But since it has 
found its way into print as something proved, I can not feel it time 
wasted to impugn the bona fides of the author who presents it or 
the source from which he derived it. This pseudo-myth, this rather 
clever fabrication, is given to the world, at a by no means ungraceful 
length, in the fourth chapter of Richard Deeken's " Manuia Samoa," 
a volume of travel sketches which has been somewhat severely 
criticised from the economic side. With no word of credit to any 
authority, with all the positiveness of statement proper to the 
record of approved history, he begins his chapter with the account 
of a plague in Sumatra: "Niemand kann sagen wann es war, 
wahrscheinlich jedoch lange bevor Christi Geburt, als auf Sumatra 
eine vernichtende Seuche wiitete, die die junges und altes Leben 
in Massen hinmordete. " 

The story is all the more dangerous because well told. He recites 
the ineffectual efforts to stay the disease culminating in the heroic 

*I had written these words several months before the first of such charts was put 
into the hands of the skilled navigators of the world, the Pilot Chart of the South Pacific 
for the months of September, October, and November, 1909, issued by the Hydro- 
graphic Bureau of the United States Navy. In the three months for which these data 
are tabulated, months, as I well know, of good sailing in those seas, the currents between 
the Gilberts and Samoa do not facilitate canoe voyaging, as Dr. Thilenius is so satisfied. 
The average set is westward and southwestward, and the rate averages between 10 and 
50 knots a day. 



SAWAIORI MIGRATIONS. ' 19 

determination of forty-two of the bravest young men and seven 
of the fairest maidens (the sacred seven squared by a race to whom 
four was the perfect number) to offer themselves in sacrifice to the 
plague demon that he might spare the people. They put to sea 
in seven canoes, and the plague ceased. The tale now follows these 
victims oversea, to an island in the Philippines, where seven were 
claimed by the demon. The second seven was overwhelmed in a 
gale upon the high sea. The third seven was drawn to abysms of 
destruction by a fish monster. The fourth seven got drunk on 
toddy at Nukuoro and blasphemed the god until he slew them. 
The fifth seven was killed for food on the eastward voyage. The 
survivors reached Hawaii and refreshed, then sailed seventy-seven 
nights to the south and came to land on Manu'a. 

From what source this tale came to L-ieutenant Deeken I can not 
say. To me it smacks of the ability at fabrication of a half-caste 
in Samoa whom I was never able to meet, but whose store of tradi- 
tions was tantalizingly reported as truly remarkable. Their worth 
may readily be judged from this synopsis of one of them that was 
brought me at second hand, namely, that the Samoan ancestors set 
sail from "Sumatala" under the leadership of their hero-chief 
" Niu-sisila. " If one is willing to believe in this preservation of a 
recognizable name of Sumatra, what shall be said of the prophetic 
instinct which gives to the voyagers a chief already named New 
Zealand? Slightly pro lep tic. Whatever source may be responsible 
for the myth which Deeken records so positively, I should not rest 
content without recording its total lack of credibility. 

We are now to take up the general migration theory, a division 
of our subject which may be dismissed with more summary treat- 
ment since it is commonly known. 

In the foregoing consideration of the sieve theory it will have 
been observed that Thilenius explains the route of peopling between 
termini, Malaysia as the point of departure, Samoa or Nuclear Poly- 
nesia as the point of arrival. This traverse he covers by a northern 
and generally equatorial route. Relative to the same termini the 
general migration theory covers the traverse by a southeasterly 
course, largely a coasting voyage through or on the fringes of Mela- 
nesia. The final link, the distribution eastward from Nuclear Poly- 
nesia, remains unaffected by the diverse views herein presented. 
Similarly the Indonesian link is common to both theories. 

That Malayan or Indonesian link, regarded solely as filling geo- 
graphical space, we may safely assume as an antecedent probability ; 
yet when we reflect that it has been regarded as a linguistic link, 
although this estimate of its value rests upon high authority and 
we find the names of Wilhelm von Humboldt, Franz Bopp, and 
Friedrich Mtiller associated therewith, we must not be carried away 



20 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

by the weight of the authority. Skilled as were these distin- 
guished students, I can not avoid the conclusion that their results 
are vitiated by two sources of error : Polynesia was known to them 
from scanty and not always accurate information, and Melanesia 
was scarcely known at all. In the course of the present work we 
shall have to animadvert upon this Indonesian link in its philologic 
bearings and, from the material which is about to engage our 
attention and exact our best powers of analysis, we shall essay to 
draw certain conclusions which will point to the need of revising 
the estimate which served as the foundation for the name Malayo- 
Polynesian, under which designation these languages of the ocean 
have entered into the classification of linguistic systems. 

In its most concise form the general migration theory could not 
be stated more clearly than in the words of that master of Polynesian 
lore, Edward Tregear, recently president of the Polynesian Society : 

We must leave the fascinating subject of the whence of the Maori as 
an open question, to be settled hereafter when more full and perfect knowl- 
edge enables the student of the future to gather up the ravelled strands of 
evidence and twist them into a cord that will bear the strain of scientific 
investigation. In the meantime the Polynesian Society is doing much to 
gather together the facts and preserve the knowledge fading fast with the 
elders of the Maori people. It may be of interest to put before the reader 
the hypothesis most generally accepted by Polynesian scholars as to the 
advent of the Maori in the Pacific. It is as follows : 

The Polynesians are a people which either originated in India or in 
central Asia and passed through India. Leaving the mainland they 
journeyed eastward through the Malay Archipelago, occupying perhaps 
many generations in the voyages from island to island. At the time of 
their passage the archipelago was not occupied by Malays, who are a sub- 
sequent migration from the Mongolian seaboard. The Maori expedition 
or expeditions passed by the Melanesian and Papuan islands, inhabited by 
black people (New Guinea, New Caledonia, etc.), and reached the Fiji 
Group, where they settled for a long time. From Fiji as a center they 
colonized Samoa, Tonga, Hawaii, the Marquesas, Mangareva, and extended 
their colonies even so far as Faster Island. In process of time they either 
hived off or were expelled from Fiji and the waves of migration passed to 
and fro among the groups of islands. (Tregear: "The Maori Race," 
page 558.) 

So much in the general aspect of the case. Now let us note from 
another scholar, S. Percy Smith, the present incumbent of the 
presidency of the Polynesian Society, the traversing in detail of 
some of the elements of the problem upon which Thilenius founds 
his argument. These are cited from "Hawaiki" in its second 
edition. I refer to this edition because it is intended as the defini- 
tive statement of the author's position and because it will be the 
edition most readily accessible. For myself I have a fond prefer- 
ence for the earlier edition, the same materials treated in a different 
manner. That first " Hawaiki" appeals to me with a personal note 



SAWAIORI MIGRATIONS. 21 

lacking to the rewritten edition; it was the intimate record of the 
periplus which the distinguished author and myself made in Samoan 
storm and sun in a tiny boat upon the sea, and of our wanderings 
over the northern ocean and on the hot slopes of Hawaii. 

Of the objection that early Polynesians could not sail against 
the wind he says : 

In the present state of our knowledge of the Polynesians as navigators — 
about which we shall learn something further on — it is useless for some 
writers to insist that the prevalence of the southeast trade winds would 
form a bar to voyages made from central Polynesia to the American coast. 
The number of easterly voyages on record from various parts and under all 
sorts of weather conditions is so large that we must conclude these able 
navigators paid little attention to the trade wind if a sufficient object 
required them to face it. (Page 40.) 

Whatever powers of navigation the people may have possessed prior to 
their arrival at Java (Hawaiki), the vast number of islands in the archi- 
pelago would induce a great extension of their voyages, and generate a 
seafaring life, through which alone were they able at later periods to 
traverse the great Pacific from end to end in the remarkable manner that 
will be indicated. In the archipelago, where most of the islands are forest- 
clad to the water's edge to this day, the water was the principal highway 
and this necessitated constant use of canoes; whilst the location of the 
various branches of the people on different islands with considerable spaces 
of sea between would induce the building of a larger class of vessels. It 
certainly seems from the very nature of the surroundings that Indonesia 
was the school in which the Polynesians learned to become great navigators. 
(Page 99.) 

Having now presented the two opinions on this vital point, this 
seems a fitting spot in which to record a flaw in the reasoning of 
Dr. Thilenius which will have suggested itself already to the reader. 
He is ready enough to admit the possibility of early Polynesians 
navigating against a head wind from Samoa eastward, while denying 
their ability to perform the same sort of navigation toward Samoa 
from Indonesia. Samoa was no Annapolis for this race of seamen; 
the skill of seacraft which carried them for thousands of miles over 
eastward ocean was the skill which had brought them over balanced 
thousands of miles of westward waters. 

Where Tregear has outlined the disputed section of the route in 
general, yet wholly unmistakable, terms, Percy Smith is particular, 
as we shall see. 

Starting from Avaiki-te-varinga, which is probably Java, the route 
followed by the migrations would be via the Celebes, Ceram, and Gilolo, 
where, no doubt, were colonies of their own people, to the north shores of 
New Guinea. Finding this country already occupied by the Papuans 
they would coast along to the southeast end, where, it would seem, a very 
early migration settled, which is now represented by the Motu and cognate 
tribes. This same route was probably followed by the ancestors of the 
Rarotongans until they branched off past New Britain and the Solomon 



22 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Islands on their way to Fiji, probably leaving a colony at Sikayana, or 
Stewart's Island, oflf the coast of the Solomons, where the people speak a 
dialect of Maori or Rarotongan and are Polynesians. Whether Lord 
Howe's Island, or Liueniua, also called Ongtong Java, was peopled at the 
same time is uncertain. It is inhabited by Polynesians, as Mr. Churchill 
tells me. Possibly Nukuoro and Lukunor were also colonized at this time. 
In more than one Rarotongan tradition an island or country is mentioned 
named Enua-kura, or the "land of the red feathers," which is possibly New 
Guinea, so called by the Rarotongans after the bird of paradise, the beau- 
tiful feathers of which would be to them treasures of the highest value — 
such treasures as Europeans who do not know the race can hardly believe 
in; they were their jewels. (Page 113.) 

The same indefatigable research supplies us yet another argument, 
a persisting memory of intercourse with an inferior and servile race. 
Because of its length I am forced to omit a few details : 

Again, there ought to be traces of some recollection of the black or very 
dark-brown negrito races of Indonesia. In the Maori traditions there are 
incidental notices of an ancient people called Manahune or Manahua, who 
are by some supposed to be a diminutive race and somewhat like the elves 
of Old World stories. But they are not said to have lived in New Zealand. 
This people is also known in Hawaii under the same name, where they are 
described as somewhat like those of the Maori traditions. They appear at 
one time to have been very numerous and lived in the mountains, but were 
in a state of subjection to the Hawaiians. Again in Tahiti we find mention 
of the same people, Manahune, who in Ellis's time formed the lower orders 
of the people, but they were an ancient tribe or people. In a Paumotu 
genealogy in my possession I find one of their chiefs named Tangaroa- 
Manahune, who lived many generations ago ; and it is known that there was 
a tribe in old times in Mangaia named Manaune. We shall find later on a 
reference to them in Rarotonga history, where they are again referred to as 
little people. The word manahune, both in Maori and Rarotonga, means 
a scab or mark on the body. It may be that the origin of the name is due 
to the people who bore it being marked with cicatrices. The vague notions 
the Polynesians generally now have in regard to the Manahune — their 
living in the mountains and forests, the wonderful powers of sorcery, etc., 
accredited to them — seem to point to their having been a race living in the 
remote past, conquered by the Polynesians, and probably often enslaved 
by them. In fact the traditions no doubt point to the Papuan or Melane- 
sian race, who, it is well known, mark their flesh in gashes as an ornament, 
instead of tattoo as with the Polynesians. The same Nga-Puhi tradition 
goes on to state: "Some of the people of those parts were very black, a 
people who smelt very strong when near, their hair was bunched out to be 
stiff and appeared in tufts, and their appearance was ill-favored." This 
is in brief form a fair description of a Papuan or Melanesian. (Page 103.) 

I have preferred to use the words of these two great authorities 
because they are authorities and because my own conclusions as 
to the two theories will more properly be presented in the discussion 
of the pertinent linguistic material. 

As between the two theories, we must recognize that each is an 
attempt to close a gap, the gap between Indonesia and Polynesia 



SAWAIORI MIGRATIONS. 23 

in the race history. Thilenius works it out painfully but coldly, with 
every resource that may be drawn from the armamentarium of the 
ocean physiographer. He neglects wholly the record of the only 
folk who retain any recollection of this great ethnic movement, the 
corpus of Polynesian tradition. This we shall summarily examine. 
In the Rarotongan accounts of the voyages and discoveries of Ui- 
te-rangioro we find the following list of new lands : 



Te Ravaki. 


Nu-taara. 


Nu-amo. 


Iti-takai-kere. 


Avaiki. 


Rangi-raro. 


Nu-mare. 


Iti-nui. 


Papua. 


Kuporu. 


Mata-te-ra. 


Nu-pango. 


Iti-rai. 


Tangi-te-pu. 


Te Tuira, 


Nu-kare. 


Nu-iti. 


Iti-anaunau. 


Rara. 


Manuka. 


Nu-takoto. 











These last we have no difficulty in comprehending as Savai'i, 
'Upolu, Tutuila, Manu'a — Samoa, in fact, plainly named. A little 
earUer in the list the four which bear specific names of Iti are quite 
as clearly the Viti Archipelago. These two points establish the 
direction of the voyaging, a direction which in the long remainder 
of the list, after the mention of Samoa, covers the eastern Pacific. 
It is not improper, then, to reason back in the same direction from 
our two known points and assign to the unidentified places a 
position somewhere between Viti and Indonesia. 



22- TH^ POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Islands on their way to Fiji, probably leaving a colony at Sikayana, or 
Stewart's Island, off the coast of the Solomons, where the people speak a 
dialect of Maori or Rarotongan and are Polynesians. Whether Lord 
Howe's Island, or Liueniua, also called Ongtong Java, was peopled at the 
same time is uncertain. It is inhabited by Polynesians, as Mr. Churchill 
tells me. Possibly Nukuoro and Lukunor were also colonized at this time. 
In more than one Rarotongan tradition an island or country is mentioned 
named Enua-kura, or the "land of the red feathers," which is possibly New 
Guinea, so called by the Rarotongans after the bird of paradise, the beau- 
tiful feathers of which would be to them treasures of the highest value — 
such treasures as Europeans who do not know the race can hardly believe 
in; they were their jewels. (Page 1 13.) 

The same indefatigable research supplies us yet another argument, 
a persisting memory of intercourse with an inferior and servile race. 
Because of its length I am forced to omit a few details : 

Again, there ought to be traces of some recollection of the black or very 
dark-brown negrito races of Indonesia. In the Maori traditions there are 
incidental notices of an ancient people called Manahune or Manahua, who 
are by some supposed to be a diminutive race and somewhat like the elves 
of Old World stories. But they are not said to have lived in New Zealand. 
This people is also known in Hawaii under the same name, where they are 
described as somewhat like those of the Maori traditions. They appear at 
one time to have been very numerous and lived in the mountains, but were 
in a state of subjection to the Hawaiians. Again in Tahiti we find mention 
of the same people, Manahune, who in Ellis's time formed the lower orders 
of the people, but they were an ancient tribe or people. In a Paumotu 
genealogy in my possession I find one of their chiefs named Tangaroa- 
Manahune, who Hved many generations ago ; and it is known that there was 
a tribe in old times in Mangaia named Manaune. We shall find later on a 
reference to them in Rarotonga history, where they are again referred to as 
little people. The word manahune, both in Maori and Rarotonga, means 
a scab or mark on the body. It may be that the origin of the name is due 
to the people who bore it being marked with cicatrices. The vague notions 
the Polynesians generally now have in regard to the Manahune — their 
living in the mountains and forests, the wonderful powers of sorcery, etc., 
accredited to them — seem to point to their having been a race living in the 
remote past, conquered by the Polynesians, and probably often enslaved 
by them. In fact the traditions no doubt point to the Papuan or Melane- 
sian race, who, it is well known, mark their flesh in gashes as an ornament, 
instead of tattoo as with the Polynesians. The same Nga-Puhi tradition 
goes on to state: "Some of the people of those parts were very black, a 
people who smelt very strong when near, their hair was bunched out to be 
stiff and appeared in tufts, and their appearance was ill-favored." This 
is in brief form a fair description of a Papuan or Melanesian. (Page 103.) 

I have preferred to use the words of these two great authorities 
because they are authorities and because my own conclusions as 
to the two theories will more properly be presented in the discussion 
of the pertinent linguistic material. 

As between the two theories, we must recognize that each is an 
attempt to close a gap, the gap between Indonesia and Polynesia 



SAWAIORI MIGRATIONS. 23 

in the race history. Thilenius works it out painfully but coldly, with 
every resource that may be drawn from the armamentarium of the 
ocean physiographer. He neglects wholly the record of the only 
folk who retain any recollection of this great ethnic movement, the 
corpus of Polynesian tradition. This we shall summarily examine. 
In the Rarotongan accounts of the voyages and discoveries of Ui- 
te-rangioro we find the following list of new lands : 



Te Ravaki. 


Nu-taara. 


Nu-amo. 


Iti-takai-kere. 


Avaiki. 


Rangi-raro. 


Nu-mare. 


Iti-nui. 


Papua. 


Kuporu. 


Mata-te-ra. 


Nu-pango. 


Iti-rai. 


Tangi-te-pu. 


Te Tuira. 


Nu-kare. 


Nu-iti. 


Iti-anaunau. 


Rara. 


Manuka. 


Nu-takoto. 











These last we have no difficulty in comprehending as Savai'i, 
'Upolu, Tutuila, Manu'a — Samoa, in fact, plainly named. A little 
earlier in the list the four which bear specific names of Iti are quite 
as clearly the Viti Archipelago. These two points establish the 
direction of the voyaging, a direction which in the long remainder 
of the list, after the mention of Samoa, covers the eastern Pacific. 
It is not improper, then, to reason back in the same direction from 
our two known points and assign to the unidentified places a 
position somewhere between Viti and Indonesia. 



CHAPTER IV. 
THE FIRST POLYNESIAN HOME. 

A race always under an eastward momentum — No positive statement 
of the place of origin possible — Bopp proposed an Aryan source — Max 
Miiller connected it with the Turanian stock — Logan regarded the 
Ganges Valley as the ancient home — Macdonald's Semitic theory of 
a great and widely diffused Oceanic language set forth at large. 

Noting that the Indonesian area presents its own group of prob- 
lems relative to the Polynesian, which have yet by no means come 
to a satisfactory solution, we pass for the present to a summary 
statement of the theories which have been proposed in elucidation 
of the Polynesian migration before its entrance upon the Malayan 
region. 

Wherever we know this race we find it under a momentum 
directed eastward, under the impulse of some power behind, which 
has sufficed to overcome the inertia of a race settled as autochthons. 
But what that power may have been, what the place of autoch- 
thonous settlement, we are without positive information. 

Beyond peradventure we recognize the momentum toward eastern 
Polynesia from Nuclear Polynesia. In Nuclear Polynesia we recog- 
nize the momentum, some of it from Viti. In Viti we are more 
and more distinctly certifying ourselves of the same momentum 
exerted along intervening steps of the Melanesian archipelagoes 
from the Malayan exits. In Indonesia we find the same momentum 
from Sumatra toward the east. But behind Sumatra, the Malayan 
entrance, while we may believe in the impulse, we are at a loss to 
find the next earlier point from which dislodgment was made. Yet, 
as the direction sense remains constant, we need have no hesitation 
in looking toward the west. 

The first great guess at a point of origin we owe to Bopp in his 
classic study (1841) "tJber die Verwandschaft der malayisch-poly- 
nesischen Sprachen mit den indisch-europaischen. " His effort was 
to establish these sea wanderers as an early, perhaps the earliest, 
offshoot from the stock which, after long wanderings otherwhither, 
has produced our race. 

After discussion of the same material Max Miiller evolved the 
theory that the sea people, by then definitely accepted as Malayo- 
Polynesian, were related to the Turanian through the Thai of Siam. 
Later students along the same line have reached a similar conclusion 
through the Mon-Khmer. 

25 



26 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Percy Smith (in "Hawaiki" passim) follows the conclusions of 
J. R. Logan in seeing the more probable seat of the early Polynesians 
in the Ganges valley. Logan himself says, in his " Ethnology of the 
Indo- Pacific Islands:" 

I was especially struck with the constantly accumulating evidence of 
the derivation of the leading races of the islands (Indonesia) from Ultra- 
india and India, and was led to the conclusion that the basin of the Ganges 
and a large portion of Ultraindiawere occupied by tribes akin to the Malayo- 
Polynesians before the movement of the Aryan or Indo-Germanic race into 
India. 

A survey of the character and distribution of the Gangetic, Ultraindian, 
and Asianesian (Indonesian) peoples renders it certain that the same 
Himalaj'o-Polynesian race was at one time spread over the Gangetic basin 
.md Ultraindia. As this race is allied to the Chinese and the Tibetan, it 
is probable that it originally spread from Ultraindia into northeast India. 

We shall now proceed to the presentation of Dr. Macdonald's 
Semitic theory, premising that in his writing Oceanic race and 
Oceanic language are an anticipation of the proof of his deductions. 
This he explains in the following form : 

These three groups of languages and dialects — the Malayan, the Poly- 
nesian and the Melanesian — naming them in the order in which they have 
successively become known, are, as Friedrich Miiller has shown, members 
or branches of the Oceanic, which is as perfectly well-defined a family of 
languages as is the Semitic or the Indo-European. The Oceanic is, as its 
name indicates, insular. Its habitat, which we may call Oceania, stretches 
from Madagascar off the east coast of Africa, across the Indian Ocean to 
the Malay Archipelago, and on through the Pacific Ocean to Easter Island. 
On the north it has invaded from the island world and settled only on the 
southeastern extremity of the Asiatic continent, hence called the Malay 
Peninsula. On the south it has not reached the Australian continent, 
though closely approaching it in New Guinea. The islanders who speak 
Oceanic number about fifty millions, or one-thirtieth of the human race. 

To say that the Oceanic languages are a perfectly well-defined family is to 
say that they are all sprung from one mother tongue — the Oceanic mother 
tongue ; and to establish the Asiatic relationship of the Oceanic is to estab- 
lish that that mother tongue was originally carried by its speakers from 
the Asiatic continent to the island world. * * * 

It is not until we take into account the linguistic data that we get upon 
the solid ground of certainty. And first of all it is to be observed that 
though there was an element of negro blood in the race, due to intermixture, 
the race itself, as its language proves, was not negro. What that race was 
can only be determined from its language, and what that mother language 
was is to be learned from an examination of its descendants and repre- 
sentatives, the spoken Oceanic languages and dialects of the present day. 
If the race came from the Arabian Peninsula, the Semitic motherland, 
sprung from the people of the commercial empire that existed there, then 
their language was Semitic. For the Phenicians, the people of that ancient 
South Arabian empire and of their Abyssinian colony, and their descend- 
ants now in Abyssinia and Arabia, all are Semitic speakers. If the race 



THE FIRST POI.YNESIAN HOME. 27 

came from the Indian Peninsula one might suppose with Bopp that the 
language was Indo-European; if from the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, with 
Max Miiller that it was Scythian or Turanian. The problem thus, as 
is clear, can only be solved linguistically; and the praiseworthy efforts 
of Bopp and Miiller to solve it are valuable if only as having led to the 
certainty that the Oceanic mother tongue was neither Indo-European nor 
Turanian. Their attempts failed because made on insufficient data, and 
their methods were for the same reason inadequate * * * 

When we say that Arabia was the motherland of the island family of 
languages, this does not mean that the primitive Oceanic tongue — of which 
the multitudinous dialects of Oceania as at present spoken are the analytic 
or simplified descendants, as English is of Anglo-Saxon, or the Romance 
dialects of Latin — was derived from the Arabic; but that Arabia was the 
motherland of the primitive Oceanic as it is of the Ethiopic, Amharic, and 
Tigre, and of the Assyrian, Phenician, Hebrew, and Aramaic. If it had 
more in common with Arabic than with any other Semitic language, that 
is because Arabic has more than any other preserved the features of the 
primitive Semitic tongue, the common mother of all of them. The primi- 
tive Oceanic must be regarded, not as a descendant of, but as a sister to 
the Arabic, Himyaritic, Ethiopic, Assyrian, Phenician, Hebrew, and Ara- 
maic and the Efate, Samoan, Malagasy, Malay, etc., as cousins to the Mahri, 
Amharic, Tigre, Mandaitic, Modern Syriac, and vulgar Arabic dialects, due 
allowance being made for the fact that these latter have always been 
more or less under the conserving influence of the surrounding Semitic lit- 
erature and civilization, from which the island dialects have been for ages 
completely cut off, as well as completely isolated from each other. 

It should be premised that Dr. Macdonald's argument, loaded with 
minute details and seldom stating clear principle, is nowhere lucid. 
The profundity and the breadth of his Semitic erudition will be 
estimated by each student in proportion as he is fitted to pass crit- 
ically upon such topics. From the confusion of statement tangled 
with partial proof involving more statement with yet more proof I 
have endeavored to present a simple syllabus of his argument : 

A. 

The gist of our author's chapter on Oceanic phonology, a plexus 
of multitudinous detail, is this : 

1. Letters interchange freely within their own vertical series. 

2. Letters interchange freely as between series and series. 

3. Letters conveniently efface themselves, whether initial, medial, 
or final. 

4. Initial syllables may drop off. 

5. Initial syllables may be added " to lighten the pronunciation." 
Granting all or most of these postulates, it will be seen that no 

particular limit need be set to philological comparison. For such 
proof as these positions seem to require the student will have to 
follow out the intricacies of Dr. Macdonald's argument to such con- 
viction as he may be able to discover. 



30 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

use of the same class of data by other students as the basis upon 
which to combat their conclusions when they differ from his own. 
He says of his predecessors in this field : 

They trusted mainly if not wholly on the comparison of words, chiefly 
the pronouns and numerals, in which there is always great liability to 
error, and which apart from comparison of grammar and structure can 
never be conclusive. As to the pronouns, for instance, Bopp, and Max 
MuUer following him, chose to regard the Malay kita, kami, we, and kamu, 
ye, as composed of an article ki, or ka, and the pronouns ta, mi, mu. This 
enabled Bopp to compare the latter with the Indo-European pronouns, 
and Max Miiller, it should be added, to compare them with equal prob- 
ability or improbability with the Turanian ; and by this method the Oceanic 
pronouns might just as well be compared with any others whatsoever. The 
fact is, as the Melanesian clearly shows, that this ki, or ka, is not an article 
at all, and that this comparison of Bopp, and also that of Miiller, founded 
on the notion that it is, is illegitimate and futile. 

In this chapter it has been my aim to present the line of Dr. 
Macdonald's argument as simply as possible; to avoid, wherever it 
might be done, the complexity and intricacy of the detail of his 
method; and in general to refrain from debating the controversial 
points which arise, the latter pleasure being reserved for the critical 
examination of his material, upon which now we shall enter. 



CHAPTER V. 
DISSECTION OF THE THEORY. 

The result of independent treatment of the data should be identical — 
As the other elements have long been known and carefully studied, 
the Melanesian is the critical test — The computation of exactly 
what material is now made available for study — In what pro- 
portion the Efat6 vocabulary contributes to the solution of the 
problem and the manner in which properly it may be employed. 

The force of Dr. Macdonald's argument, the proof of the theory 
thus summarily outlined, must rest upon the data which he has 
utilized for its development. Those data we find available in the 
vocabulary which he has given us as a complete dictionary of Efate. 
He has made use of this material in a certain fashion, such as most 
commended itself to his thought ; he has prosecuted long and pain- 
fully a certain method. All this was within his prerogative. If 
the theory be valid, if the method be true, the same data should 
yield the same result, and no other than the same result, when 
studied in accordance with such other method, being valid, as may 
commend itself to another philological investigator. 

This it is which is now to engage our attention. We are to take 
his data, his vocabulary material assumed to be in itself accurate, 
to argue it afresh and, I feel confident, without preconception or 
other such prejudice, and let it lead us where it may. 

If really there be an Oceanic speech family tree, with its roots in 
the Hadramaut and its distal twigs in Te Pito te Henua, then we 
may expect to find in the material in the course of this examination 
such a mass of words showing clearly a nexus of development — 
enabling us thereby to establish a distinct and probable law of the 
mutation of sounds — that we may finish the investigation with the 
happy satisfaction that the Oceanic tongue has proved itself. 

We are not to ask that every Polynesian word shall reveal to 
us through the operation of this law of mutation its primitive 
triliteron in some Semitic household. We are by no means to 
expect that we can take any Semitic stem and by the application 
of the rule develop the succeeding forms in Indonesia, Melanesia, 
and Polynesia. Not even Grimm's law will do that for us in the 
Aryan family. But we do have the right to expect that, if there 
prove to be a substantial base for this theory, there be a sufficiency of 
examples in each direction and a consistency in their establishment. 

31 



32 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Dr. Macdonald has presented a captivating theory of an Oceanic 
family wandering from a Semitic home, bold sailors over unknown 
seas and far from the tents of Kedar. This theory must rest on 
the data which he presents to us. If it be valid, the data must 
yield the same result to independent examination. 

This Oceanic speech family comprises four households. The 
Polynesian is known intimately, the Malayan has been even more 
extensively studied, the Semitic has engaged the attention of the 
most able scholarship for centuries. The Melanesian is now just 
being admitted to the family circle; it has been scarcely known 
until the publication of this Efate work. 

But the position of this new household is significant geographi- 
cally, for it bridges the gap between Indonesia and the nearest point 
of Polynesian culture. We are therefore warranted in expecting 
Melanesia, on this theory, to establish its articulation with the 
Malayan speech group in one direction, with the Polynesian tongues 
in the other, and internally we look to find some thread of inter- 
relation between Efate and such other languages of Melanesia as 
are known at all. In the order of antecedent probability, a mathe- 
matical deduction as generally applicable as an algebraic equation, 
these associations should be arranged in the following order : 

Melanesian interrelations ; the most frequent. 

Indonesian and Polynesian articulations; either equal in 

frequency or exhibiting a slight preponderance toward 

the Indonesian. 

These two terms are immediately limiting. Established cases in 
which the two terms are combined will have a great weight. Similar 
weight will attach to examples which are found common to Mel- 
anesia, Indonesia, and the Semitic. The examples which can be 
established in an indisputable chain from Polynesia through each 
link back to the Semitic will be compelling evidence. 

These are the matters which we are to look for in the exploration 
of the material, in independent study of the Efate dictionary. 

In an earlier chapter I mentioned the number of the dictionary 
entries, 3,657, and I gave that as the result of a count seriatim. 
The operations of arithmetic did not cease with the attainment of 
that figure. I made a table of all the words for which Dr. Macdonald 
claimed relationship with other households of his Oceanic family. 
This table I now present, for it contains matter of note. In it I 
have cast out the purely demonstrative words. Since I have shown 
that Dr. Macdonald is willing to base his own theory upon them to 
a certain considerable degree, but is averse from allowing their use 
to other inquirers, I think it preferable to put them aside lest I be 
classed with Bopp and Max Miiller. 



DISSECTION OP THE THEORY. 



33 



In this table I have made use of the convenience of abbreviations, 
M for Melanesian, V for'Viti, P for Polynesian, My for Malayan, 
S for Semitic. With each entry the name Efat6 is to be understood. 
Thus the first entry in the table, M 31, signifies that Dr. Macdonald 
notes 31 words in which he finds for Efat^ relation with some lan- 
guage elsewhere in Melanesia, but without recognizing further affilia- 
tions. Similarly the final entry signifies that he has found 29 words 
in Kfate for which he provides identification with words along the 
whole chain from Polynesia to the Arabian Saba. 

In such a study as this the position of the Fijian speech is anom- 
alous. It is neither wholly Melanesian nor pure Polynesian. As in 
part it may be claimed for each household, there seemed but one 
way of securing fair treatment wherever it chances to be involved 
in this investigation; namely, to set it apart and in each instance 
to sift out the Melanesian or the Polynesian affiliation. 



M 


V 


P 


My 


S 


M 


31 


V 


22 


P 


67 


My 


43 


S 346 


MV 


3 


MV 


3 


MP 


9 


MMy 


lO 


MS 31 


MP 


9 


VP 


9 


VP 


9 


VMy 


7 


VS 30 


MMY 


lO 


VMy 


7 


PMy 


17 


PMv 


17 


PS I03 


MS 


31 


VS 


30 


PS 


103 


MyS 


100 


MvS 100 


MVP 


I 


MVP 


I 


MVP 


I 


MVMv 





MVS 6 


MVMy 





MVMy 





MPMy 


3 


MPMy 


3 


MPS 22 


MVS 


6 


MVS 


6 


MPS 


22 


MMyS 


28 


MMyS 28 


MPM5' 


3 


VPMy 


9 


VPMy 


9 


VPMy 


9 


VPS 25 


MPS 


22 


VPS 


25 


VPS 


25 


VMyS 


26 


VMyS 26 


MMyS 


28 


VMyS 


26 


PMyS 


95 


PMyS 


95 


PMyS 95 


MVPMy 


4 


MVPMy 


4 


MVPMy 


4 


MVPMy 


4 


MVPS 8 


MVPS 


8 


MVPS 


8 


MVPS 


8 


MVMyS 


6 


MVMyS 6 


MVMyS 


6 


MVMyS 


6 


MPMyS 


24 


MPMyS 


24 


MPMyS 24 


MPMyS 


24 


VPMyS 


44 


VPMyS 


44 


VPMyS 


44 


VPMyS 44 


MVPMyS 


29 


MVPMyS 


29 


MVPMyS 


29 


MVPMyS 


29 


MVPMyS 29 


Total 


217 




229 




468 




443 


923 


P. ct. 5 


•93 


6 


.20 


12 


■79 


12 


. II 


25-24 



The total of the words for which his ingenuity has suggested 
affiliations outside the island of Bfat^ is 1,154, or 3i-55 P^r cent 
of this dictionary, which he calls complete. That is to say, for not 
so much as one-third of the vocables in the language of Kfate can 
his liveliest fancy — how lively that may be we shall see hereafter — 
find any sort of ground for his promise of "the Oceanic languages, 
their material or vocabulary set forth in a complete dictionary of 
one of them." Furthermore we find that an even smaller number, 
in effect no more than a quarter of the whole number of entries, 
covers all the suggestions of Semitic affiliation which he has ven- 
tured upon. Compare his claim that no more than 29 words establish 
the complete chain from Arabia to Samoa with his identification of 
346 words which connect Efat6 with the Semitic without having 
left a trace elsewhere in Melanesia or anywhere throughout the 



34 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

varying languages of Indonesia. As soon as he attempts to link 
Indonesia in the backward bight of the chain, his figures fall to 
ICO, and when he links in Melanesia he finds but 28 available words. 
Accepted even at his own valuation, philologically a most faulty 
one, these are but small foundations for so lofty an erection of a 
Babel building which is to confound Max Miiller and other names 
by no means inconsiderable in systematic philology. 

In these studies my position is eastward. From Polynesia I am 
looking through all available linguistic material toward the west, 
hoping to find some data that will establish the partition of the 
Polynesian and the Melanesian elements in Viti, welcoming any- 
thing that promises to enable us to comprehend the Melanesian in 
areas where its proportion in speech is the more considerable, 
rejoicing at the accession of new knowledge which will equip us 
to give better study to the possibility of some manner of proof that 
kinship does or does not exist among Polynesian, Melanesian, and 
Indonesian, convinced that only as we establish these three links 
of the chain in positive knowledge can we approach the yet earlier 
history of these tongues with clear sight. 

In Dr. Macdonald's material I see three classes of data. 

1 . A central area, Melanesian material for which we have not yet 
established connections with either of the known areas, Polynesian 
and Indonesian, respectively. We therefore want the means to 
subject this to comparative study, and on this account it remains 
unavailable. 

2. An eastward extension, through so much of Melanesia as is 
known, to the well-established knowledge of Viti and Polynesian. 

3. A westward extension, through Melanesia to the equally well- 
established knowledge of the Indonesian; and, yet more remote, 
Dr. Macdonald's confident projection to the Semitic. 

The second class is that which shall provide the instruments for 
our study of these data upon which we are now to engage at much 
length and with the utmost attention to the minuteness of detail. 
The Indonesian languages, and in yet greater measure the Semitic 
tongues, have their own enthusiastic students, and to such we may 
confidently leave the prosecution of similar research from the 
vantage-ground of their own knowledge, in case this ambitious 
theory should seem at its western extremity as proper a subject of 
debate as it does to those of us who are engaged at the eastern 
extremity. 

In the following detailed study I have purposely omitted many 
examples, for simple inspection will show our author patently in 
error. At the same time I have endeavored to afford room for all 
such as seemed at least debatable. The process of elimination will 
be continued in these studies. 



CHAPTER VI. 
EFATE AND VITI AND POLYNESIA. 

Comparison of the vowels of the Melanesian element of Efate and 
Viti — The establishment of consonantal variety — The assumption of 
a parent speech from which these deviate — The Viti appears to be 
the younger son — The comparison continued through the Sawaiori 
element of Viti — Viti, Samoan and their parent speech, the Proto- 
Samoan — Comparison of Efatd with Polynesian and summation of 
results — The extent to which Efate identifications penetrate into Poly- 
nesia — Argument from recorded anomalies — It is improbable that 
Efat^ received its Polynesian content through westward drift of casta- 
ways — Proof that this element came through the migration of Proto- 
Samoan wanderers — Check-list of Polynesian phonetic mutations. 

At the eastern extremity of the language groups which it is sought 
to associate into this Oceanic family we have two firm, if unsaintly, 
foundations, the Polynesian (or Sawaiori of Whitmee's proposed 
nomenclature, convenient even if not wholly acceptable), and the 
Viti. Such element of the Viti, somewhat less than half of the 
vocabulary according to my estimate, as is not identifiable with 
the Sawaiori we assume to be of Melanesian origin. The larger 
element we shall consider in its clear connection with the Sawaiori. 
We shall examine the Efat^ first in its relation to the Melanesian 
Viti ; thence we shall proceed to the examination of the Efate in its 
relation to the Sawaiori with the inclusion of so much of the Viti 
as properly pertains to that stock; last of all to the consideration 
of the element of Efat^ which appears in the Sawaiori without 
having left an impress upon the Viti. 

The data 1-47 in Appendix I enable us to complete our con- 
spectus of the material in Efate which is identifiable with that 
element in the carefully wrought-out Viti vocabulary which has not 
been identified with any of the equally familiar tongues of Polynesia. 
Two explanations here are possible: the former that this is truly 
a portion of the Melanesian component of Viti ; the latter that this 
element is Polynesian, but that it has failed of preservation in the 
eastward languages. The former we adopt provisionally as by far 
the more probable. 

Now let us sum the observations as to the phonetic relations of 
Efat^ and the Melanesian component of Viti, and first the vowel 
system. 

By far the largest mass of vocalic dissimilarities in the data under 
study lies within the area of the neutral vowel. I have* already 

*i7 Journal of the Polynesian Society, 87. 

35 



36 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

had to deal with this matter in the consideration of the phonetics 
of the more strictly Polynesian languages. The same holds true, 
mutatis mutandis, of these two Melanesian tongues. I cite the 
earlier discussion of the subject : 

A man with a quick ear and an obedient tongue may, as the result of 
long discipline, acquire almost perfect use of the Samoan consonants, but 
it is most probable that no Caucasian has really mastered the art of the 
Samoan vowels. It is as in their music : the intervals, the supertones, and 
the fractions of the tone are developed on a system which we find it 
impossible to acquire. It establishes a new group of units of vibration 
of the vocal cords, for which the fundamental diapason of our own speech 
is not set in unison. 

With this in mind, we shall find a plain explanation of the central triangle 
of the vowel changes if we regard the short a, e, o as merely so many 
approximations to a primal obscure short vowel which lies centrally situ- 
ated in respect of these three apical points. One congeries of the Polyne- 
sian tongues may have had a vibration series and period which inclined 
its use of the primal obscure vowel somewhat in the a direction ; to another 
congeries the e component was the more grateful; to yet another the 
tendency was in the o or labial grade. * * * Thus we have no hesitation 
in taking this central triangle of d-e-b out of the group of vowel changes 
in Samoan, of regarding it as no more than a doubly muffled rendering of 
a single central sound, and of removing it entirely from consideration 
among the criteria of vowel changes as dialectic indicia. 

When we diagram upon the common alphabetic scheme the vowel 
changes not in this class, we find some interesting developments. 
Along the palatal strut, that which rests upon i and peaks in a, 
in the data thus compared we find but a single instance of the 
dialectic vowel change a-i in hila (12) to pick up Viti vili, and of 
i-e in seri (22) to loose a tabu Viti sereka to untie; and the weight 
of these instances is considerably lessened by the fact that they lie 
in an unaccented syllable, and a terminal one at that, unaccented 
terminal vowels in Viti being evanescent. 

On the labial strut, from a to u, most of these vowel changes are 
seen to lie. The maximum frequency, four instances, is found 
between and u, the change u-o is seen in hure (14) to wash Viti 
mborea; lume a (19) to dip Viti lomotha; and suba (33) to break 
Viti sovetaka; the change o-u in mako (41) offspring Viti makumbu 
grandchild. A change over a slightly longer interval, o-a, is found 
in trbm, (38) turmeric Viti ndamu, red. A still longer gap is found 
in a-u in bera (27) to crumble Viti vuruvuru; and in the reverse direc- 
tion, u-a, in mutrei (5) breadfruit cake Viti mandrai. 

There remain three changes which vary from the foregoing simple 
system of vocalic mutation along one or the other of these struts, 
for they cut across diagonally. Of the change e-u we have two 
examples, in tefa ki (24) to range Viti tuva, and in bera (27) to 
crumble Viti vuruvuru. The change i-o is found in bori (28) to 
break Viti vorota; and u-i in lubwa (30) to pour out Viti livia. 



EiPATE AND VITI AND POIvYNESIA. 37 

We now proceed to the examination of the consonant scheme of 
the two languages. They thus appear in the diagram: 

EfatS. Viti. 

Semivowels y r, 1 w y r, 1 w 

Nasals ng n m ng n m 

sp--" &'"'::::::::::::::::::: ch '^'''7 - i' - 

MiitP<5 /Sonant g — b ngg nd mb 

mutes jg^jj^^ j^ ^ _ j^ ^ _ 

(kw-bw-kb) 
(ngm-ngw-mvv) 

ts 

tr 

The constant consonants are ng, k, I, n, s, m; the constant muta- 
tion is f-v. It does not seem advisable, in the limited supply of 
data, to essay the quantitative weighting of the mutations; but in 
qualitative examination it seems altogether permissible to deduce 
a scheme of the consonant skeleton of the common ancestor from 
which derive the Efate and the Melanesian component of Viti. This 
we shall designate the Efate- Viti parent speech, and for convenience 
shall refer to it by initials E-V. In this diagram we present in each 
triple entry the Efate consonant at the left, the parent in bold-face 
type, the Viti at the right : 

EfaU-Parent- Viti. 

r-r-r, 1 
1-1-1 
tr-r-ndr 

ng-ng-ng n-n-n m-m-m 

— s-s-s 

dh-dh-dh b-v-v 

(ch) — f-f-v 

g-g-ngg t-d-nd b-b-mb 

k-k-k t-t-t b-p-mb 

The characteristic Melanesian compounds, kw-bw-kb, ngm-ngw-mw , 
and ts are left unplaced in reference to E-V by reason of the fact 
that this particular group of data affords no opportunity to link them 
to the known physics of the Viti consonant structure. Abundant 
material for their intimate study will be afforded us later in the work. 
For the present, our comments on the results thus far attained shall 
be summary; the discussion will properly follow upon the similar 
analysis of the remaining data, so much more voluminous. 

If we examine the diagram attentively we note the particular 
features in which the offspring equally favor the parent. In the 
upper portion the resemblance is perfect; the nasals and sibilants 
are the same; so, in effect, are the semivowels; so the sonant lin- 
gual spirant, and of the surd mutes the palatal and the lingual. In 



38 



THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



the palatal series and again in the lingual series only one of the two 
inheriting languages falls away from the ancestral estate and that 
in but a single item in each series. In the labial series both lan- 
guages have lost, and in equal measure, a possession of the parent. 
In the comparison of the two junior languages we shall see that the 
Efat6 more nearly takes the property as heir-at-law, and the Viti is 
struggling to keep a younger son's uncertain hold upon the family 
possessions. The proof of this lies in our comprehension of the 
inward significance of the reinforced or prefaced consonants. 

Both languages show the impossibility of reproducing the uvular 
r without a conscious effort to produce a sound for whose expression 
the buccal organs lack training. The effort takes the same form; 
Efatd with its tr shows a shade less exertion to be necessary than 
the Viti ndr. In all other cases where Viti employs the nasal of 
the same series, namely, in the three sonant mutes, it is seen that 
Kfatd is able to take the sound without assistance. This makes it 
clear that Efate, lying relatively toward the west, closer approaches 
E-V than Viti, which lies so far at the eastern verge of Melanesia as to 
have been overlaid deeply by Polynesian sounds, forms, and usages. 

So far as these two points may determine the line, so far as the 
comparison of the two tongues shows the direction along that line, 
we look for E-V at some point on the line produced beyond Efat€. 
Now the inspection of our charts shows that the line pr. :;^uced 
westward beyond Efat6 is immediately drowned in empty sea. We 
may, then, look for the E-V parent either among the islands lying 
south of the central New Hebrides or among those lying in the 
northern area. So far we have considered but these two points; 
we need new points to establish to our satisfaction what becomes 
of that line when once it turns the corner at Efat^. The remaining 
data, which we are now to study, will tend to acquaint us with 
these points. That is the definite object which the close scrutiny 
of this store of newly available Melanesian material has presented 
to my investigation. 

Tabi,e a. 



Viti. 


Proto- 
Samoan. 


Samoan. 


Viti. 


Proto- 
Samoan. 


Samoan. 


Viti. 


Proto- 
Samoan. 


Samoan. 


a 


a 


a 


u 





o 


h 


h 





:i 


(Obscure 
vowel) 


i: 


u 
o 
a 


u 


u 
u 
u 


dh 
dh 

s 


h 
s 

s 


s 
s 
s 


e 


e 


e 


y 


y 


— 


mb 


V 


V 


1 


i 


1 


r 


r 


1 


mb, V 


f 


f 


i 
e 


z 


e 
i 


ndr 
1, n 


r 
1 


1 
1 


ngg,k,dh 
t, nd, k, 


k 


t 


u 


— 


1 


ng, V 


ng 


ng 


dh, s 


a 


— 


— 


n> ng 


n 


n 


mb, V 


p 


p 


o 





o 


m, ng 


m 


m 









EFATB AND VITI AND POI.YNESIA. 



39 



We shall next pass under review the comparison of Efate with 
that element of Viti which has been proved to be Polynesian. The 
data for this study will be found under the items 64-72, 1 21-146, 
186-238, 272-365. 

Before entering upon this examination we present a tabular aspect 
of the mutations between Viti and Samoa as derived from the 
discussion of the 465 words in the Viti dictionary which are satis- 
factorily identified as Polynesian, and to collocate therewith the 
Proto-Samoan as in the relation of parent. (See table A, page 38.) 

Table B. 



E 


V 


P-S 


S 




Data. 




E 


V 


P-S 


S 


Data. 


a 


a 


a 



























g 


Of 


a 


d 


/320 
1 340 


322 


324 


339 


ng 


ng 


ng 


ng 


(12 cases) 




















m 


ng 


ng 


ng 


199 






i 


a 


a 


a 


232 


322 


324 




n 


n 


ng 


ng 


125 









a 


a 


a 


195 


357 






k 


k 


k 


* 


(28 cases) 






u 


a 


a 


a 


129 








ng 


k 


k 


* 


136 297 


299 


361 


a 


e 


a 


a 


70 


188 


307 




— 


ngg 


k 


* 


188 






a 


u 


a 


a 


144 


202 






k 


ngg 


k 


* 


191 202 


224 




e 


e 


e 


e 










ng 


ng 


k 


' 


135 






a 


e 


e 


e 


134 


203 






s 


s 


s 


,<■ 


(12 cases) 






i 


e 


e 


e 


/203 

1354 


210 


297 


338 


t 
s 


s 
dh 


s 
s 


s 
s 


232 

[ 65 143 
134 1 342 


298 


337 





e 


e 


e 


189 
















344 




a 


a 


e 


e 


121 


126 






s 


s 


— 


— 


206 339 






e 


i 


e 


e 


65 








s 


dh 


h 




r 72 215 
I352 363 


338 


340 


i 





e 


e 


191 




















i 


i 


i 


i 










— 


dh 


h 


— 


274 278 






e 


i 




i 


204 


319 






/ 


dh 


— 


— 


235 









i 




i 


196 








t 


t 






(34 cases) 






a 


a 




i 


225 








t 


nd 






[208 347 
1350 353 


348 


349 


a 


e 




i 


237 




















u 


u 




i 


298 


305 


362 




t 


dh 






70 141 






e 


u 




i 


133 








s 


s 






133 


























t 


s 






238 






a 











137 


138 


205 




m 


m 


m 


m 


(25 cases) 






e 











349 








m 


ng 


m 


m 


313 






i 











205 


231 


331 


353 


b 


m 


m 


m 


igi 






u 











219 








f 


V 


V 


V 


296 









u 








314 








b 


V 


V 


V 


307 






u 


u 


u 


u 










f 


w 


V 


V 


291 






a 


u 


u 


M 


273 








b 


w 


V 


V 


281 






i 


u 


u 


M 


134 


284 


321 


341 


bw 


w 


V 


V 


189 









M 


u 


u 


125 


286 


273 




f 


V 




f 


(10 cases) 






a 





u 


u 


129 








b 


V 




f 


(13 cases) 












u 


u 


138 


194 






u 


V 




f 


206 273 


363 




u 





u 


u 


288 








— 


V 




f 


360 






I 


I 


1 




(27 cases) 






b 


mb 




f 


273 






r 


I 


1 




(11 cases) 






bw 


nib 




f 


133 






I 


r 


r 




/123 

I341 


138 


3" 


315 


b 


mb 


p 


p 


/65 125 
1207 285 


190 
289 


192 


r 


r 


r 




(132 


136 


225 


327 


bw 


mb 


p 


p 


ri24 128 
1279 


139 


218 










I336 


355 


359 


364 










I 


ndr 


r 




272 








f 


mb 


p 


p 


134 






r 


ndr 


r 




334 


335 






b 


V 


p 


p 


45 284 


286 




n 


n 


n 


n 










bw 


V 


p 


p 


361 






n 


n 


n 


I 


296 








— 


V 


p 


p 


361 






f 


■V 


— 


■w 


295 























40 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



The mutations properly referable to the parent neutral vowel are 
very numerous. The less frequent vowel mutations are here set 
down with the authority on which they rest, and in case of material 
involved in this collection of data the serial number is appended for 
convenience of reference. 



i-e siapo-seavu. Note, the mutation e-* 

is extremely common. 
i-a ofanga-ovi. 
i-u 'ili-kuli (294), milo-mulo, isu-uthu 

(289), ilo-uloulo (334). 



u-t tulu-tiri (332). 

u-o 'ull-koli {118), lofia-luvu (253),wa/((- 

mavo, ufi-ovi, fangu-vango. 
u-a ngungulu-ngalo, liu-lia (197). 



The less frequent of the constant mutations are these: 



\-n lama-nama, lamu-namu. 


k-d/s se'e-dhedhe. 


ng-fe anga-dhaka. 
ng-i; lingi-livi (103). 
n-»g sina-singasingau. 
m-ng lima-linga (313). 


k-ng 'i-ngi. 

t-k iupoio-iumboko. 

t-s lata-lasa, uta-usa (238). 

t-dh tofe-dhove, matala-madhala 



Table C. 



E 


P 


Data. 


E 


P 


Data. 


a 


a 


(73 cases) 












a 


/53 95 117 157 163 164 
\i65 256 268 


m 


ng 


246 264 




€ 


mw 


ng 


167 




i 


a 


63 86 117 175 178 258 


k 


ng 


248 







a 


95 109 161 181 


g 


ng 


2d.8 




u 


a 


86 167 250 


t 


ng 


61 




e 


e 


(12 cases) 


k 


* 


(21 cases) 




a 


e 


120 163 172 249 


ng 


' 


95 169 171 178 


250 


i 


e 


87 115 152 173 261 


— 


' 


258 







e 


247 


s 


s 


(20 cases) 




u 


e 


87 


i 


s 


90 (cf 96) 169 




i 




(30 cases) 


t 


s 


170 




a 




171 241 


h 


s 


255 




e 




165 174 241 254 


t 


t 


(36 cases) 









241 


m 


m 


(26 cases) 




u 




91 242 251 


h 


m 


76 










(25 cases) 


bw 


m 


172 




a 





96 99 172 244 255 


m 


— 


I02 




e 





88 244 


mw 


— 


107 




i 





87 244 255 


bw 


V 


50 84 109 242 








/52 58 59 75 160 163 
[184 264 


w 


V 


117 




u 





f 


V 


152 




u 


u 


(42 cases) 


b 


V 


87 




a 


u 


103 109 no 123 


f 


f 


(17 cases) 




e 


u 


179 


b 


f 


/49 51 83 86 147 


148 


i 


u 


105 






1 1 74 243 246 







u 


51 83 88 245 


bw 


f 


245 




I 


I 


(26 cases) 


kb 


f 


157 




r 


1 


(22 cases) 


b 


p 


(15 cases) 




r 


— 


158 


bw 


p 


179 183 241 




n 


n 


(18 cases) 


f 


p 


173 176 250 




ng 


ng 


/83 92 93 94 151 154 

\i77 246 264 


m 


p 


103 





Dealing now with so much of the Efate material as possesses in 
the Viti a possible bridge across the gap, we construct table B, 
on the preceding page. The mass of the data under consideration, 
amounting to 175 entries, is sufficient to establish these results upon 



BFATE AND VITI AND POLYNESIA. 



41 



a satisfactory basis. The Kfate material is adjusted to the preceding 
table of Viti-Proto-Samoan-Samoan. Corroboration is not listed 
in the case of the more frequent concords or mutations. 

The following mutations, which have been observed in the com- 
parison of Viti and Samoan, are not involved in any of the material 
for which we possess Bf ate data : a-u, nd-h, dh-k, k-t, v-ng, ng-n, mb-v. 

The results of this collation are exhibited in the following table 
showing to what extent there is an agreement persisting through 
Efat^-Viti-Samoa, in cases where Viti and Samoa differ to what 
extent Bfate agrees with Samoa and with Viti respectively, and to 
what extent it differs from each. The cases of agreeing vowels have 
been omitted for convenience. The spirants and mutes of the labial 
series have been omitted because, owing to the absence of one or 
other from each language, it has proved impracticable to establish 
a comparison; the items involved in this omission amount to 52. 





Vowels. 


Semi- 
vowels. 


Pala- 
tals. 


Lin- 
guals. 


Labi- 
als. 


Total. 


Throughout 

With Samoa 

With Viti 


8 
8 

43 


41 

6 

II 

12 


40 

3 
2 
6 


46 
18 

3 

8 


25 
I 


152 
36 
24 
69 


With neither 



We now pass to the consideration of the data involving Efate 
and Polynesian which find no bridge in Viti. (Table C, page 40.) 
These will be found under the items 48-63, 73-120, 147-185, 239-271. 
Here again, in the possession of 160 items, we have satisfactorily 
sufficient data for a comparative study. 

The results of this collation are displayed in the following table. 
As before, the spirants and mutes of the labial series have been 
omitted because comparison is impracticable; /, however, being 
comparable, is included. 





Vowels. 


Semi- 
vowels. 


Pala- 
tals. 


Lin- 
guals. 


Labi- 
als. 


Total. 


Same 


182 
71 


26 

23 


30 
12 


74 
5 


43 
15 


355 
126 


Different 



From this material we diagram the relation of Efate and Samoa 
to their common parent. 

Efate- Parent-Samoa. 

r-r-l 

1-1-1 

tr-r-1 

ng-ng-ng 



g-g-' 
k-k-' 



n-n-n 


m-m-m 


s-s-s 






bw-v-v 




f-f-f 


t-d-t 


b-b-p 


t-t-t 


b-p-p 



42 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Comparing this with the similar diagram Efate-Parent-Viti (page 
37) we note the following differences: 

1. That Samoan ' has to do duty for parent g and k. 

2. That Kfat^ and Samoan t alike are called upon to do duty 

for parent d and t. 

3. That Samoan p does duty for parent h and p. 

4. That Efate h does duty for parent h and p. 

5. That Efate hw does duty for parent v. . 

In yet broader comparison we observe that all but one of these 
differences is found among the mutes in their three series; that 
Efat^ possesses both sonant and surd of the palatal mutes; that 
it accords with Samoan in the loss of the sonant lingual mute, and 
that in the labial mutes it has lost, or has not yet acquired, the 
surd, while Samoan has lost the sonant. 

When we add to this latter item the consideration that Efatd has 
difficulty in compassing the sonant spirant of this same series and 
has to render it by the muted semivowel hw, we are led to the 
conclusion that while the Efate folk have a richer endowment of 
palatals their lips are not sufficiently under nice control to do justice 
to the wealth of the Proto-Samoan labials, a determination which 
naturally arises from inspection of what we may deem a mouthing 
process in pronunciation. We are, therefore, not at all surprised 
that in the instances where Efat^ is comparable with Viti and 
Samoan, and they are not in concord, this ruder speech of the west- 
em seas agrees with the rougher Viti in 40 per cent of such cases. 

We shall next pass to the consideration of the width of these 
Efat^ identifications with Polynesian, and we shall reckon the tale 
of those that are found only in Nuclear Polynesia, the proximate 
islands ; and those which have reached to the most distant verge of 
Sawaiori migration. We shall be narrowly particular in specializ- 
ing geographically the identifications in Nuclear Polynesia, except 
for a certain important subdivision more general in regard of the 
classification of identifications in the eastward Polynesia of the 
later swarming. In each case we treat Nukuoro* as practically 
Samoa, and the few instances drawn from Polynesian inclusions in 
Melanesia or islands of the Polynesian vergef we class with Nuclear 
Polynesia. Furthermore we segregate the data as involving or 
omitting the Viti, a major subdivision in scope, yet one which more 
complete scrutiny of distal Polynesia may quite as probably show 
to be devoid of existence; it is accordingly maintained as no more 
than provisional. 

*i7 Journal of the Polynesian Society, 152. ^2^ Amer. Journal of Philology, 370. 



EFATE AND VITI AND POLYNESIA. 



43 



Efati-Viti-Nuclear Polynesia. 

Samoa 65 191 357 

Tonga 121 

Nukuoro 348 

Moiki 356 

Samoa-Tonga 70 

Samoa-Futuna 186 

Samoa-Niue 127 

Futuna-Nukuoro 45 

Samoa-Tonga-Niue . . . 195 

Samoa-Tonga-Futuna . {[J^d'l'otuna) ''' 
Samoa- Tonga-Niue- \ 

Uvea/-'3i 

Samoa-Tonga-Futunat ,^ ^o^^^ oo« 
Uvear'7 (etc.) 220 

Samoa-Tonga-Niue- 1 , 
Futuna-Uvea/-* 30 

Samoa-Tonga-Niue-\ / 



145 311 



Futuna-Uvea-Nukuoroj 



132 198 200 
(etc.) 209 



Efati-Nuclear Polynesia. 

(54 60 77 79 84 
1 102 105 109 115 
I117 119 247 251 
(246 (and Nukuoro) 

Samoa-Tonga 56 85 156 169 

Samoa-Futuna 50 82 

/157 93 (and Nu- 
\kuoro) 



Samoa , 



Samoa-Tonga-Niue . 



(and 
(and 



Nu- 



174 
95 181 



Samoa-Tonga-Futuna|^^^j.^y' 

Samoa-Niue-Futuna . . 1 1 1 
Samoa-Niue-Uvea .... 53 
Tonga-Futuna-Uvea ..112 
Samoa-Tonga-Niue 1 

FutunaJ ■■^' 
Samoa-Tonga-NiiJi ^.^ ^^^^ Nukuoro) 

Samoa-Tonga-Futuna \ ,^ 
Uvea/ " 
Tonga-Niue-Futuna-\ , 

Uvea/ ^^ 
Tonga -Niue-Fu tuna- . 1 

Uvea/ ^ 
Samoa-Tonga-Niue- \ 

Futuna-UveaJ ' '^^ 



255 



91 178 



Combining these two tables, we have noted 69 cases of identi- 
fications of words common to Efat^ and Nuclear Polynesia and 
which extend no farther along the track of the migration eastward. 
As I have been at pains to indicate* that there is a possibility of 
segregating the residua of the former, or Proto-Samoan, migration 
and the latter, or Tongafiti, migration in Nuclear Polynesia, it is 
of the highest interest to note that all but seven of these identi- 
fications involve the Samoan, and that no less than eighteen reach 
Samoa and go no farther. 

We shall next take up the tale of Efate and all Polynesia, distal 
as well as nuclear, with, however, certain very important data 
reserved for yet more particular note. 

Efati- Viti-Polynesia. 



64 


67 


68 


72 


123 


125 


126 


133 


134 


138 


139 


141 


142 


143 


146 


187 


190 


192 


193 


196 


201 


203 


204 


206 


207 


208 


210 


211 


212 


213 


214 


215 


216 


2I8 


222 


223 


226 


227 


228 


229 


230 


231 


233 


234 


235 


238 


272 


273 


274 


275 


276 


277 


278 


279 


281 


282 


283 


284 


285 


286 


288 


290 


291 


292 


293 


294 


295 


296 


297 


298 


300 


301 


302 


304 


305 


306 


307 


308 


310 


312 


313 


314 


315 


317 


318 


319 


320 


321 


322 


323 


324 


325 


326 


327 


330 


331 


332 


335 


336 


338 


339 


340 


342 


343 


344 


U5 


346 


347 


349 


350 


351 


352 


353 


354 


355 


358 


359 


360 


.361 


362 


363 


364 








































Efati-Polynesia . 














48 


58 


61 


63 


73 


74 


75 


76 


78 


80 


81 


87 


89 


90 


92 


94 


lOX 


106 


107 


118 


120 


148 


149 


150 


151 


152 


153 


1.54 


1.58 


1.59 


161 


162 


163 


164 


166 


167 


168 


171 


172 


175 


177 


179 


183 


184 


185 


240 


241 


243 


244 


245 


248 


249 


253 


256 


257 


258 


260 


261 


263 


264 


266 


267 


268 


269 


271 























*i7 Journal of the Polynesian Society, 214. 



44 THE POIvYNBSIAN WANDERINGS. 

From the i88 items of the identification of K ate material with 
Polynesia, including the Nuclear Polynesian and the most remote 
terminus of migration, we have withheld for particular note the 
following interesting items, which, with others of similar import yet 
to be developed, call for special comment. 

These items are identifications made in Nuclear Polynesia and 
thence traced, not to distal Polynesia in general, but to particular 
termini with at least one intervening or intermediary point. We 
group them as they fall into three classes as southern, eastern and 
northern swarms. 

<^miihpr« [Maori-Mangareva 72 120 272(nefu) 

Wm l^^o"-^^^^^ "37 155 309 328 180 250 

■ (Maori-Tahiti-Mangareva . . io6c 239 74 116 165 147 194 197 219 

(Other intermediate points in several items are Mangaia, Rarotonga, Tongarewa, the 
Paumotu.) 

Eastern fTahiti-Mangareva 106 232 

Swarm: \Paumotu-Mangareva 242 

>T ., fHawaii-Mangaia 332c 

Mem jj^^^jj_-rahiti 98 140 160 252 

::>warm. [Hawaii-Tahiti-Paumotu . . 316 

We have next to consider a small but well-marked group of 
identifications where there is a leap from Efate to distal Polynesia 
without having left a trace in Nuclear Polynesia except in so far 
as that may be held to exist in the instances linked to Viti, these 
being distinguished by V in the list. 

General 99 176 V237 

Southern swarm 96 97 V1366 V124 

Eastern swarm 1060 

Northern swarm 59 88 104 1 10 

Finally we come to a group where identification has been estab- 
lished in Nuclear Polynesia and in one, and only one, of the per- 
ipheral languages. In the same classification and with the same 
notation they are listed in the following table : 

Swarm: 

Southern .. 1066 V122 V130 V144 182 V199 V236 262 V287 V329 V3436 

Eastern ... 100 108 113 V1390 170 173 V299 V334 

Northern.. 55 V 69 83 86 114 V128 V189 V224 V3430 

In arithmetical summation we find that 324 identifications in 
this material may be considered quite satisfactorily established as 
between Bfat^ and Polynesia. Of these there are 69 words in which 
the Efat^ word is found in Nuclear Polynesia alone, 191 in which 
it is general to Polynesia, 19 in which it is associated to the northern 
swarm which has found its ultimate seat in Hawaii, 12 to the 
eastern swarm, 33 to the southern swarm and a Maori home. 

Now what are the deductions which may justly be drawn from 
these data? 



EFATE AND VITI AND POI^YNESIA. 45 

A. 

We know from our study of the Samoan record of historical 
tradition and equally from our comparison of the elements and 
methods of that language with its congeners in eastward Polynesia 
that this group of islands, so centrally situated in its relation to the 
outward islands as is the palm to its outstretching fingers, has been 
the scene of at least two settlements of Sawaiori stock. To these 
two periods, culminating in the victory of the earlier colonists in 
the Matamatame epoch,* I have assigned the designations of Proto- 
Samoan and Tongafiti, the one carrying to us its own explanation, 
the other equally clear to the Samoan as his own name of the enemy 
who drove him into the mountains, harried him with exactions, and 
was at last expelled by the semidivine might of his great national 
hero, Savea, in whom the Malietoa name began. 

Our initial problem, therefore, is to deal with the incidence of the 
now established Polynesian content of Bfate. Is it Proto-Samoan, 
is it Tongafiti, is it a mixture of both? That is to say, in another 
form of statement, was it the former swarm out at the gates of the 
Malay seas, or was it the latter, or was it both which bivouacked 
in Efate of the New Hebrides on its way to Samoa? Or, this is 
a possibility as well, did wind-driven estrays from Samoa obtain a 
foothold in Efate in sufficient numbers to fix and clinch these several 
items upon the Melanesian speech there existing? Was it during 
the earlier Proto-Samoan period, during the succeeding Tongafiti 
period, or during the modem Samoan era after Matamatame, when 
the language is a mixture of these two in proportions by us as yet 
undetermined, that such reverse migrations took place? 

B. 

The last hypothesis, the counter migration westward from Samoa 
considered as an eddy current of the great eastward sweep of the 
race, we shall take up first. The drift of such castaways has been 
known within the historic period. I cite Codrington'sf excellent 
authority upon this point : 

From the limits of the Melanesian languages as defined above, the lan- 
guage of the Polynesian settlements in Melanesia has to be withdrawn. 
The distinction between this and the Melanesian is everywhere plain, and 
there is very little distinction apparently to be made of dialect in the 
speech of one settlement and another. These Polynesian outliers are to 
be found in Uea, one of the Loyalty Islands; in Fate, Sandwich Island; 
in some islets of the Sheppard Group, and notably in the settlement of 
Mae in Three Hills ; in Tikopia, north of the Banks Islands, and in several 
of the Swallow Group near Santa Cruz; in Rennel and Bellona, south of 
the Solomon Islands, and in Ongtong Java, near Ysabel. The language 
of these is said, on good authority, to be substantially that of Tonga, and 

*27 American Journal of Philology, 371; 30 American Journal of Philology, 171. ' 
t Melanesian Languages, page 7 et seq. 



46 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

the same throughout; speakers of the Maori of New Zealand can under- 
stand it and make themselves understood; it has nothing to do directly 
with the Melanesian languages.* The existence of these Polynesian settle- 
ments, however, in the midst of Melanesia can not fail to suggest questions 
of interest and importance which it is impossible to dismiss without con- 
sideration. As to their origin, it is not difhcult to conjecture what it has 
been. Canoes accidentally drifting or blown away, or expeditions pur- 
posely directed to known islands, have landed small parties of Polynesian 
people either on uninhabited places or on islands occupied by Melanesians. 
Some at least of such settlements may be supposed comparatively modern. 
If such islands as Rennel, Bellona, or Tikopia have been reached, remote 
from any large Melanesian island, the colonists naturally remain purely 
Polynesian in language, habits, and physical characteristics, for there is 
no admixture. If a single canoe, or a small male party, has found its 
way to an inhabited Melanesian island, the Polynesian element has been 
absorbed, leaving perhaps onl)'^ some fairer and more straight-haired 
children as an evidence of mixed blood. f In the case of such a settle- 
ment as Mae the case is different. The middle part of that island, one 
only about six miles long, is occupied by people whose speech is that 
common to all these Polynesian settlers, but who physically are not dis- 
tinguishable from their neighbors who are Melanesian both in language and 
physical character. The same is the case in the Swallow Islands: the 
inhabitants of islands close together speak either a language like that of 
Santa Cruz or the Polynesian ; but they are all alike Melanesian in appear- 
ance. The Tikopians, an isolated Polynesian settlement, are wholly unlike 
Melanesians — tall, heavy, light-colored men, with straight hair. The 
reason why the Polynesian-speaking people of Mae, for example, are Mel- 
anesian in appearance clearly is that the Melanesian blood in them has 
overborne the Polynesian element; that is to say, the Polynesian settlers 
have, generation after generation, taken Melanesian wives into their villages 
in which the speech was Polynesian. The speech, the descent of chiefs, 
certain religious practices, have remained Polynesian, the physical aspect 
has gradually lost its original character. Under such circumstances the 
speech which will be permanent is the speech of the settlement ; the phys- 
ical character that will prevail will be that of the blood. Hence the 
Tikopian is physically and in language purely Polynesian, the Fileni man 
of the Swallow Group is in speech Polynesian but physically Melanesian. 
The phenomena of the case are thus explained. J 

*Some few years ago a whaler picked up in the Solomon Islands and brought down to 
Norfolk Island some natives of Mae and Fate, survivors of a crew massacred in Ongtong 
Java. They belonged to the Polynesian settlements, and they told me that they, the 
Mae and Fate men, spoke the same language, and also understood that of the Ongtong 
Java people. — Dr. Codrington's note. 

tl have seen myself in Ureparapara a man and woman with a son, drifted thither from 
some Polynesian island; and I have noticed straight-haired children in Saddle Island 
who were known to be descendants of Polynesian castaways. — Dr. Codrington's note. 

ISome fifty years ago the Banks Islands were visited in two successive years by double 
canoes. The people in those canoes said they came from Tonga. They settled the first 
year for a time on the islet of Qakea, close to Vanua Lava, quarrelled after a time with 
their neighbors, and went off. When they returned next year they were attacked by 
the natives and driven off. There were women with them. If they had settled on 
Qakea there would be there now a Polynesian-speaking people, but Melanesian wives 
from Vanua Lava would be continually bringing in Melanesian physical characteristics. 
If Qakea had been an isolated place like Tikopia, there would have been then a small 
purely Polynesian colony. — Dr. Codrington's note. 



EFATE AND VITI AND POI.YNESIA. 47 

It remains to state another remarkable fact. In Three Hills Island, 
Mae, the Polynesian settlement above mentioned is about two miles 
distant from Sesake, at one end of the island, occupied by those who 
may be called the aborigines. The Mae language is Polynesian, if not 
purely, at least decidedly so ; the Sesake language is Melanesian decidedly, 
and at any rate has nothing that makes it appear more influenced by its 
Polynesian neighbor than if Sesake and Mae were in different and distant 
islands. This can not be too positively stated, and the importance of the 
fact is very great. It is an exemplification, in a very narrow field, of what 
is also found to be the case with regard to Fiji. The Fijian group is only 
some 200 miles west of the Friendly Islands, which are decidedly part 
of Polynesia. There has been a considerable intercourse between the two 
groups, and no doubt a great infusion of Tongan, Friendly Islands, blood 
among the higher classes of Fijians. There has been also, according to 
native legends, a considerable intercourse between Fiji and the purely 
Polynesian Samoa. Yet the Fiji language is most decidedly Melanesian; 
it has no doubt something directly derived from Tonga, but it is no more 
Polynesian than the languages of the Banks Islands, which lie far away 
to the west, out of reach of any but the most casual and insignificant 
intercourse with Tongans or other Polynesians. Intercourse, therefore, and 
close neighborhood with Polynesians do not, as a matter of fact, materially 
affect the language of Melanesians. 

Yet Efate has had its Polynesian content sufficiently long to 
subject it to a course of modification,* and this is not the work of 
a day or of a generation. We are, therefore, to lay aside the pos- 
sibility that this accretion is due to westward drift in the modern 
epoch; furthermore we are yet without information on the extent 
to which modern Samoan is the result of the admixture of the 
speech of the earlier and of the later migrants. 

It is equally impossible that the Polynesian accretion came to 
Efate during the Tongafiti domination of the littoral of western 
Samoa. We have segregated in this Polynesian content a consid- 
erable proportion of words which, qua Polynesian, are the exclusive 
possession of Nuclear Polynesia. It is absurd to hold it possible 
that Tongafiti migrants should have acquired these words from the 
Proto-Samoans with sufficient grip to carry them on a voyage against 
the current of their race and to impress them on an alien and 
resistant people, yet with entirely too feeble a hold to carry them 
along the current of their further and easy migration eastward. 

The data here collected must stand as proof positive that if the 
Polynesian content of Efat6 is due to a westward drift from Nuclear 
Polynesia that acquisition must have been in the Proto-Samoan 
period, a period which we must consider to have ended with the 
Tongafiti swarming, the epoch of the great voyages, and that was 
somewhere about i ,200 of our era. Against this possibility of west- 

*This is shown in examination of the data passim in this collection, and particularly 
as regards a specific detail of such modification in my paper on Duplication by Dissim- 
ilation, 30 American Journal of Philology, 171. 



48 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

ward drift our comparison of the Polynesian of Efate with that of 
Nuclear Polynesia gives us warrant to say that it is highly improb- 
able that Efate received its Polynesian from the east; it gives us 
no warrant to say that it is impossible. 

C. 

It may be difficult and it may remain difficult to prove that the 
Polynesian in Melanesia did not come there from Sawaiori settle- 
ments in the central and eastern Pacific ; the proof of a negative by 
no means loses any of its logical difficulties when stated in terms 
of an unlettered people. But there is all the proof that consistent 
tradition can give to the migration theory which introduces the 
Melanesian chain as the line along which the migrant fleets passed 
from the known sojourn in Indonesia to the known occupation of 
Polynesia. The presence of so large a share of Sawaiori vocables 
in Efat6 does not in itself prove that this island lay on the fairway 
from Indonesia to Savai'i, but it is hugely confirmatory of all other 
evidence upon which this theory is based. We are here really not 
so much concerned with the proof of this migration theory as we 
are with the determination of which swarm it was that included 
Efate in its voyaging. 

In the Proto-Samoan we have a distinct, and surely an early, 
phase of Sawaiori speech which differs from the Tongafiti in the 
possession of certain vocables which the latter has not — in the 
absence of certain vocables which the latter has preserved or has 
acquired since the separation of the two stems. Above all else the 
Proto-Samoan is distinguished from the Tongafiti by its maintain- 
ing superficially, or recoverable under the surface by the merest 
scratching, the remnants of the original speech in which closed 
syllables were possible. 

Everywhere in this Polynesian of Efate we find the closed syllables 
of the Proto-Samoan, not the Tongafiti softening away of the final 
consonant. This is so common that it has not seemed necessary 
to collate for this feature, it has been sufficient to insert the Proto- 
Samoan radical in each item of the collected data where it has been 
possible to recover it. On this score we have no hesitation in asso- 
ciating the Polynesian content of Efate with the Proto-Samoan. 

In consideration of the vocabulary we are dealing with 324 items. 
Of these there are but 1 2 which are not identified in Nuclear Poly- 
nesia; if we include Viti in Nuclear Polynesia, as seems quite 
justifiable, we shall reduce the reckoning to 9. Now 9 in 324 is 
readily explicable by the known habit of Polynesians to cast out 
certain words under the manifold working of their tabu.* Against 
these 9 is to be set the fact that of our 324 identifications 20 per 

*See note 255. 



EI^ATE AND VITI AND POLYNESIA. 49 

cent, I in every 5, 69 words in all, are common to Efate and Nuclear 
Polynesia and are not to be found in the languages deriving from 
the Tongafiti or cadet branch of the family; that in the close sub- 
division of the Nuclear Polynesian 18 words of these 69 are to be 
found in Samoa alone, and that only 7 in all fail of Samoan identi- 
fication, and even of these 7 there are 2 which might readily be 
identified in Samoan. The conclusion is irresistible that the Poly- 
nesian content of Efate is Proto-Samoan. 

Assuming the validity of the migration down along the Melanesian 
chain from Indonesia to the Pacific we have no hesitation in declar- 
ing as proved that the Proto-Samoan swarm had to do with Efat^ 
and that the Tongafiti swarm did not touch there. I have used 
discretely the term "had to do" in reference to this transaction, 
for we are without data upon which to base a more definite determi- 
nation. The main body of the Proto-Samoans may have rested 
upon Efate through such a lapse of time as to impress their better 
speech upon the ruder autochthons, or a considerable unit of the 
swarm may have deviated from the voyage and have colonized the 
island. In either case the physical results of such commingling are 
not apparent. 

D. 

We now come to the last items in the tabular grouping of the 
data, the eastward extension of this material which we now know 
to be Proto-Samoan and its discovery in territory now occupied by 
Tongafiti descendants. We shall here touch upon it very lightly, 
for it does not bear upon the proof as relating to Efat^. We are 
not to assume that the swarming impulse which set the Proto- 
Samoans in motion from ancestral Hawaiki (whether that be in the 
Hindu-Kushor in the Hadramaut) , which drove them into and out 
of Indonesia, which pushed them through Efatd and into Nuclear 
Polynesia — ^we have no reason to assume that this quest of the 
sunrise deserted them when they reached the green hills and the 
gray sands of Samoa. We read their stories but blindly if we miss 
the departure of hardy voyagers in search of sea and sea and haply 
land beyond. Until the Tongafiti came and drove them from the 
coasts the sea was theirs for voyaging. In these memoranda we 
think we find record of the ports some of them made. 

There is confirmation peripheral as well. Hawaii has record* of 
voyages from Samoa direct, and in New ^ealandf there is a similar 
tale. The Samoans say that their ancestors started on voyages 
from Samoa, the Hawaiians and the Maori record that voyagers from 
Samoa arrived. Here in the philological record we seem to have the 

*2 Fornander "Polynesian Race," 33. tS. Percy Smith in litt. 



50 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

proof as convincing as in our civilized estate would be the production 
of clearance and entry duly attested by tidewaiter and collector of 
the port. 

We are now brought to a point at which it will be advantageous 
to offer a check-list of the mutations in the Polynesian material 
contained in the fundamental data of this work. The standard 
upon which the comparison is based is the Proto-Samoan, the earlier 
phase which with as much certainty as ease we may recover from 
the current Samoan. The figures refer to the data items as pre- 
sented in the appendix,pp. 185-43 1. The figures included within par- 
entheses indicate that in the vocables thus designated the mutation 
appears to run concurrently through two or more languages. The 
point is important and worthy of some note, for it is quite possible 
that the word stem may of its own constitution carry the mutation 
into a speech whereto the mutation itself is not normal. To find 
an excellent instance of this we need look no further than the first 
subdivision hereunder, the a-e mutation in fanua (292) land, which 
we find to persist through no less than ten of the eighteen languages 
involved, yet which is the only instance of this mutation in Maori 
which our material affords. To the identifying numerals the dia- 
critical mark of the acute accent has been added when the mutant 
vowel bears the accent in Samoan or in the speech under examina- 
tion. This distinction will be found of value in all the languages 
which retain the penult accent (except where otherwise indicated 
in the text) normal to Polynesian speech. The Maori, it will be 
recalled by those familiar with these tongues, has broken away from 
the Polynesian rule and has devised an accent system of its own. 
Similarly the degree mark is used to denote the cases in which the 
mutation occurs in an unaccented final syllable. 

a-e (170, 216, 253, 290, 292, 350) 

Bukabuka . .216, 292 Moriori 73 

Fakaafo . . . .292 Niue 147, 397', 350 

Futuna 170' Nukuoro . . .290 

Hawaii 166, 253' Rarotonga. . 2 16 

Manahiki . . . 292 Rotuma. . . .360° 

Mangareva. . 154, 253', 292, 350 Sikayana. . . 292 

Maori 292 Tahiti 183°, 216, 292 

Marquesas . . 80, 89, 193, 258, 274, Tonga 170', 290, 350 

275a, 290, 292, 322 Uvea 148', 292 

Moiki 292 Viti 164'°, 188' 

&-i 

Moriori 350 Tahiti 216 

Niue 290 Viti 1396° 

a-o (216, 271, 292) 

Hawaii 193, 292 Tonga 92, 107, 167,216,271°, 

Marquesas . . 75, 163, 2 16 277, 292 

Moriori 214'° Uvea 271" 

Niue 93', 2i6, 292 

Rotuma. . . .239', 290, 291', 294', 328' 
351.352' 



EI^ATE AND VITI AND POI^YNESIA, 51 

a-M (144, 167, 185) 

Fotuna 144', 281' Marquesas. . 185° 

Futuna 167 Niue 167, 248 

Hawaii 167 Tahiti 167, 185° 

Mangareva. . 167 Uvea 167 

Maori 167, 185° Viti 144, 202'° 

a-au 

Fotuna 45° 

e-a (47) 

Bukabuka. .327 Niue 127° 

Futuna 47' Rotuma. . . .290° 

Hawaii 210' Viti 47', 126, 272' 

e-i 

Aniwa 249° Rotuma. ... 153' 

Fotuna 315°, 247°, 363° Viti 64°, 173 

e-o (126) 

Hawaii 126 Mangareva. . 126 

Moriori 126 Marquesas . . 126 

Rotuma. . . . 122', 272' 
e-w 

Rarotonga. .257' 
I -a 

Fotuna 286° 

i-e 

Maori 332'/, Rotuma. . . .352° 

Nukuoro 304' 

i-ei 

Aniwa 300' Fotuna 298', 300', 32 1', 362' 

(This occurs in but these two islands of the verge and appears to be only initial.) 

1-M (305) 

Nukuoro. . . . 166' Uvea 286' 

Sikayana ... 32 1' Rotuma. . . . 305' 

Tonga 53' Viti 305' 

o-a 

Moriori 287 Tonga 52' 

Rarotonga. .257° Tongarewa. .147° 

o-e 

Rarotonga . . 205' 
o-z 

Viti 248° 

o-m(92,3I4) 

Futuna 92 Paumotu. . .314 

Hawaii 314' Sikayana. . . 192' 

Mangareva ..314' Tonga 92 

Maori 314' Uvea 92 

Niue 92 

O-ui 

Hawaii 139^' 

u-a 

Fotuna 76', 343°c Viti 155° 

Hawaii 277' 

u-t 

Mangaia 168° Tahiti 139, 216', 285' 

Niue 271 

u-o (129) 

Fotuna i29',328° Sikayana. . .261' 

Maori 361 Viti 129', 138°, 194, 288' 

Nukuoro 139° 

u-au 

Fotuna 151 

u-ia 

Tahiti 347 



52 THE POI^YNESIAN 

u-ow 

Aniwa 151 

ae-e 

Niue 261', 315', 347' 

&i-ei 

Maori 268 

au-a 

Mangareva..6i' 
au-ott (61, 200, 335) 

Aniwa 200', 267', 301' 

Mangareva. . 161', 162', 226', 335' 

Maori 283' 

Marquesas . . 335' 
ei-t 

Tonga 78' 

ou-au 

Fotuna 282' 

ng-w (note 125) 

Hawaii 

Marquesas (western dialect) 
ng-fe 

Marquesas (eastern dialect) 
ng-wgg 

Viti 248' 

ng-x; 

Viti 154° 

ng— 

Maori 310° 

Marquesas. .151' 

Niue 93' 

Paumotu . . . 306' 

k-ng 

Mangareva. .67, 214 
Uvea 178 

k-wgg 

Viti 188, 191, 202, 224 

k-t 

Niue 250 

k— 

Hawaii 

Marquesas. .204, 261 

Niue 57 

Nukuoro 300 

Paumotu . . . 248 
In 

Hawaii 154 

Nukuoro 100, 200, 297, 309, 310, 350 

Tahiti 100, 154 

l-ng 

Moiki 

I-/ 

Rotuma .... 354 

U 

Mangareva. .257 

l-nd 

Viti 287 

l-ndr 

Viti 272, 307, 314. 334. 335 



WANDERINGS. 



Niue 61', 200' 

Nukuoro . . . 200' 

Tonga 61', 200', 335' 

Uvea 61' 

Rotuma 285° 

Sikayana 

Viti 332'6 

Tahiti 

Uvea 69° 

Viti 135 



Rotuma. . . .300, 305 
Tahiti 

Tonga i8i 

Samoa 

Tonga 312,313 

Uvea 312,313 



BPATE AND VITI 

I— 

Hawaii 257 

Marquesas 

Niue 200, 230, 244, 301, 322, 

327. 336 
n-/ 

Nukuoro 296 

n-r 

Rotuma. . . .328 
n-wg 

Moriori 
h-h 

Niue 47, 81, 206, 278 

Tonga 
h-s 

Rotuma .... 206, 278, 340 
h-th 

Viti 47, 72, 215, 274, 278, 352 

h-w 

Hawaii 295 

'■^ « 

Futuna 239 

s-h 

Hawaii 

Mangareva 

Maori 

Marquesas 

Niue 91.98 

8-(s, h) 

Manahiki 

Nukuoro 
s-sh 

Moiki 
s-ndr 

Viti 232 

s-tk 

Viti 65, 91, 143, 198, 233, 298, 

337.338,340,341.344 
s — 

Hawaii 245 

Mangaia. . . .204, 205 

Mangareva 

Maori 239 

t-j {ch, tsh) 

Aniwa 166, 329 

Fila 166,329 

t-f 

Rotuma .... 294, 324, 350 

t-k 

Hawaii 

Mangareva. .1416 
Paumotu . . .216, 237 

t-s 

Futuna 3326 

Rotuma. . . .352 

t-nd 

Viti 141a, 208, 329, 350, 353 

t-tk 

Rotuma. .. .294 

t— 

Marquesas . . 350 



AND POI.YNESIA. 

Tahiti 281 

Nukuoro . . . 349 

Tonga 244,327,356 

Uvea 301 

Samoa 296 

Tahiti 328 

Viti 342 

Uvea 47,295.331 

Viti 206,331,339 



53 



Paumotu 
Tahiti 
Tonga 
Tongarewa 



Tonga 
Uvea 



Marquesas. .239 

Rarotonga 

Tahiti 90, 140, 239 

Fotuna 133, 165, 219, 329, 355 

Tonga 

Tonga 355 

Liueniua. . . . 350 

Uvea 165, 196,219,325 

Viti 238 

Viti 1416 



54 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



m-Mg 



\-h 



i-h 



Maori 313 

Niue 281 

Nukuoro 296 

Hawaii 
Maori 

Aniwa 259,329,360 

Hawaii 

Manahiki. . .201, 259, 290, 292 

Mangareva 

Maori 



i-p 




Futuna. . . . 


.86 


i-v 




Bukabuka . 


.290 


Fotuna 


.166,329 


Manahiki . . 


.290 


Mangareva. 


.290,293 


Marquesas . 


.290 


Uw 




Hawaii. . . . 


.290 


i-hw 




Bukabuka . 


.292 


Maori 


.122,130,133,147,148,166, 




170,213,214,223,243,273, 




283, 292, 293, 294 


i-b 




Tonga 


.86 


i-mb 




Viti 


.2730 


Uch 




Sikayana . . 


•259 



f— 



Bukabuka 
Mangaia 

Nukuoro 290 

Mangareva. .92, 147, 148, 213, 214, 272, 
290, 292, 294 



p-6 



Rotuma. . . .285 
Fotuna 192, 286 



p-wft 



p-fe 



Viti 64, 125, 128, 173, 190, 192 

Rotuma. . . .284 



p-v 



Viti 


• 313 


Rotuma. . . 


.122 


Viti 
Fotuna . . . . 


281 


Marquesas. 

Moiki 

Moriori 

Niue 

Tongarewa 


• I30,''i33/i66, 292, 293, 296 
.20i,'2o6,.2i5, 2736, 329 

.2I4,'272 

•137 


Uvea 


.86 


Paumotu . . 

Tahiti 

Uvea 

Viti 


.290 
.290 
•314 


Maori 


.290 


Moriori. . . . 


.287,293 



Fila. 



•329 



Rarotonga 

Rotuma. . . .206, 214, 290 

Tubuai. ... . .290 



Sikayana. . .285 
Tonga 52, 128 



Viti 103, 284, 286 



CHAPTER VII. 
POLYNESIAN RELICS IN MELANESIA. 

Check-list of the material for this section of the work — ^Tables of the 
phonetic relations of 8i languages of the Melanesian archipelagoes — 
The several mutations of vowels and consonants and the languages 
which employ them — Analysis of these mutations, those which are 
found in Polynesian and those confined to Melanesia — ^The ground- 
work of Polynesian mutation and the Melanesian system compared 
therewith — ^Two Melanesian foci of Polynesian influence brought to 
light — ^The sieve theory disproved by this material — Proof of the 
general migration theory — Crop colonies and the important part they 
play — ^Two tracks of Proto-Samoan migration through Melanesia — 
Proof that a Melanesian sojourn preceded the settlement of Samoa. 

In an earlier chapter I have written that in accordance with Dr. 
Macdonald's theory of his Oceanic language equal weight should 
attach to the identification of Efat^- Polynesia and Efat^-Melanesia. 
The former we have just had under rigorous review and we have 
been led to certain conclusions. We are now to examine the 
Melanesian material in its turn. 

This is distributed irregularly through the collected data, the 
distribution being based upon the tabulation of the Bfatd words in 
several series. To facilitate reference to the material of each of 
these languages the following catalogue will be found of service. 

Alite 217 239 250 251 259 265 275 278 285 291 300 301 306 309 

313 317 330 337 350 351 352 356 360 361 

Alo Teqel 122 123 147 190 193 214 217 239 250 251 272 275 278 

294 300 301 306 307 309 316 317 318 324 328 333 335 337 

343 350 360 361 

Ambrym 46 147 194 212 215 239 242 252 258 265 266 274 278 284 

287 290 291 297 298 300 305 312 318 324 329 336 350 352 

356 357 360 361 

Aneityum 124 126 147 149 154 168 173 188 191 194 198 204 205 

206 207 214 216 217 228 229 240 241 256 258 260 262 264 

265 266 268 269 270 271 273 274 278 279 282 283 285 288 

291 293 294 298 301 306 307 309 310 312 313 315 316 317 

318 319 320 321 322 323 324 326 328 329 335 337 339 340 

342 344 347 349 350 360 361 

Arag. . . . 122 149 152 153 160 190 193 209 212 214 215 217 239 250 

258 259 265 272 275 278 284 285 290 291 292 294 300 301 

306 307 309 312 313 317 318 324 328 329 330 333 335 336 

352 356 357 360 361 

Baki,...i47 149 156 182 190 194 199 208 210 211 217 228 237 240 

247 254 258 263 273 278 282 285 290 291 292 297 298 305 

308 309 312 313 315 317 320 321 324 336 340 344 346 347 

350 352 356 358 359 361 362 364 

Baravon. 74 122 147 149 156 190 207 214 215 217 257 270 273 280 

284 285 290 291 294 300 313 319 320 323 324 327 329 336 

346 358 360 361 
Bauro.. . 47 

55 



56 



THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



Belaga . . 46 147 

342 343 
Bierian..i48 156 

270 278 

305 308 

329 336 

Bougainville 149 

Brierly Island 190 

Brumer Island 298 

Bugotu..i22 147 

291 298 

338 339 

Buka. . . . 46 149 

298 300 

360 361 

Bululaha 190 217 

329 330 

Deni. . . . 194 212 
f- 361 
Dufaure Island 167 

Duke of York 46 

275 285 

320 321 

360 361 

Epi 39 44 

Eromanga 194 

291 294 
361 

Fagani. . 122 147 

273 278 

318 324 

Gog 46 122 

268 272 

317 318 

358 360 

Guadalcanar 149 

lai 194 259 

Kabadi . . 46 74 

Kabakada 122 

Kalil....294 296 

King.... 47 74 

309 312 

349 350 
Lakon...i22 123 

278 284 

335 337 

I,amassa. 47 74 

309 312 

361 363 
Lambell. 47 74 

292 294 

343 344 
Laur 47 151 

296 309 

350 352 
Lemaroro 258 

Leon 46 122 

Lifu 214 259 

Lo 46 122 

265 266 

312 313 

351 356 
Maewo. . 46 122 

259 264 

312 313 

357 358 

Mai 281 



152 203 207 

346 352 

199 207 210 

282 285 290 

309 311 312 

340 344 350 

192 259 265 

294 317 324 

324 344 

213 214 217 

301 305 306 

343 346 351 

158 190 207 

306 308 313 

363 

239 250 251 

350 351 352 

214 265 266 

340 

74 122 147 

290 292 294 

324 325 327 

47 75 77 

206 217 218 

305 312 317 



211 258 284 285 290 300 317 338 339 



216 217 240 
291 292 293 
313 315 317 
352 356 358 
278 350 

340 347 361 

239 251 257 

309 312 313 

352 361 

217 239 247 
318 324 328 

259 265 291 

356 360 361 

278 285 306 



252 256 258 259 260 263 

294 297 298 300 301 302 

318 320 321 322 323 324 

361 364 



272 275 278 284 285 290 

316 317 322 328 329 330 

257 259 265 278 280 285 

330 343 344 350 352 355 

298 300 301 306 309 317 

307 324 335 339 358 360 



149 190 

285 290 

328 329 

123 147 

275 278 

322 324 
361 

272 278 

265 294 

265 266 

147 214 

312 322 
147 151 

313 318 
352 358 

149 
292 

343 350 

151 190 

313 316 



147 
285 



214 
292 
330 
149 
284 
328 

285 
318 
292 
285 
329 
196 

319 
361 
190 
301 

351 
213 

317 



149 164 169 207 214 217 265 269 272 

300 301 309 312 313 314 316 318 319 

328 329 332 335 336 343 350 3526 358 

186 200 202 212 265 286 330 343 363 

240 265 270 273 274 278 282 285 290 

324 329 333 337 338 349 350 352 360 

217 239 250 251 257 258 259 265 272 

294 298 300 307 309 312 313 316 317 

342 350 351 352 356 357 358 360 361 

151 154 190 203 206 214 217 239 251 

285 298 300 301 306 307 309 312 313 

333 335 336 338 339 342 343 356 .357 



15 



147 149 151 

296 309 312 

346 350 352 

156 190 216 

312 313 

361 363 
274 

147 149 187 

265 318 324 
147 149 152 
272 275 278 
316 317 318 
357 358 360 
147 149 152 

266 272 275 
316 317 318 
360 361 



324 
330 
320 
352 
213 
320 
363 
193 
306 
356 
216 
318 

190 
316 
358 
217 
316 



309 328 335 

361 

327 

217 247 258 264 266 280 
321 323 324 329 336 342 



206 214 

309 312 

360 361 

247 265 

319 324 

196 213 

317 318 
361 

247 257 

317 318 



217 239 

313 317 

266 280 

329 342 

216 247 

319 320 

265 266 

319 324 



251 265 

318 324 

285 292 

343 344 

264 265 

324 329 

277 292 

329 333 



294 296 

343 344 

272 275 

328 333 

294 296 

350 358 

266 280 

336 342 

294 295 

343 344 



193 203 214 265 292 307 318 337 

326 330 333 361 

169 190 193 195 212 214 217 239 251 

285 290 291 300 301 305 306 307 309 

321 324 328 333 335 336 339 343 350 

361 

153 190 193 203 206 212 214 215 239 

278 284 285 291 292 298 301 306 309 

324 328 329 333 335 336 337 346 352 



POIvYNESIAN REI.ICS IN M^I^ANESIA. 



57 



Makura.. 74 165 

352 

Malanta.312 324 

Malekula . 43 47 

210 211 

270 274 

302 306 

329 335 

360 362 
Malo. ... 44 47 

217 218 

292 293 

319 320 

346 347 

Marina . . 39 46 

301 306 

343 350 

Matupit .74 147 

Meli 147 

Merlav. .46 122 

217 239 

309 312 

342 357 
Modnus. . 74 126 

317 324 

Mosin...i22 123 

300 301 

339 343 

Mota... . 46 47 

169 189 

212 213 

243 247 

266 267 

286 287 

307 309 

325 326 

343 344 

361 362 
Motlav. .122 123 

259 265 

312 316 
350 351 

Motu 42 44 

241 243 

298 299 

327 328 

350 351 
Murray Island 275 
Natalava 335 
Nengone 122 214 
New Britain 46 

275 289 

327 336 

New Caledonia 273 

New Georgia 149 

351 361 
New Guinea 217 
New Ireland 247 

350 351 

Nggao...20i 214 

313 324 



265 273 290 297 302 306 309 312 317 321 333 335 



Nggela . 



• 45 46 

214 216 

292 294 

317 318 

342 344 



74 77 
217 227 
276 278 
309 312 
339 340 
363 364 

121 124 
228 239 
297 301 
321 324 

351 352 
147 193 

309 311 

352 356 
214 244 

123 147 

251 265 

313 316 

358 360 

190 215 

328 329 

147 154 

306 307 

356 357 

75 122 
190 192 

214 215 
248 250 
268 269 

289 290 

310 312 
328 331 
346 347 
363 364 
147 149 

272 275 
317 318 
356 360 

47 76 

248 249 

301 304 

330 331 

352 354 

301 305 

350 361 

245 265 

76 125 

290 297 
343 345 
330 333 
190 192 

265 273 

273 278 
361 363 

215 217 
336 346 

122 147 
217 239 
296 297 
321 322 
346 350 



121 147 148 

228 239 242 

282 285 287 

315 316 317 

344 345 346 

147 148 190 

247 252 254 

302 305 306 

328 333 335 

353 354 356 

212 214 250 

312 313 317 

357 358 360 

280 285 287 



156 157 161 193 

246 247 251 252 

289 291 292 294 

318 319 320 321 

347 350 351 352 



194 199 

254 258 

297 300 

323 324 

356 358 

206 207 

285 289 

313 316 

340 343 



193 194 199 203 

258 266 270 282 

308 309 311 312 

336 337 338 339 

358 359 361 362 

272 275 278 284 

318 321 324 328 

361 

300 320 346 347 352 358 



208 

259 
301 
328 
359 

208 
290 
318 
344 



285 291 292 
333 335 336 



149 
268 
317 
361 
239 
330 
193 
309 
360 
123 

193 
216 

251 
272 
291 
313 
332 
348 



151 154 190 
275 278 284 
318 322 324 



193 197 206 207 210 
289 291 300 301 306 
328 333 335 337 338 



265 284 

335 345 

214 217 

312 316 
361 

147 151 

196 197 

217 223 

252 253 

274 275 

292 294 

316 317 

333 335 

351 352 



285 
350 
239 
317 

152 
198 
227 

254 
276 

295 
318 
336 
353 



290 
352 
251 
318 

153 
199 
228 
257 
278 
297 
319 
337 
355 



291 294 305 308 

360 361 

265 272 275 278 

324 328 333 335 



154 156 

203 205 

230 237 

258 259 

279 280 

298 300 

320 321 

338 339 

356 357 



160 163 

206 207 

239 240 

262 263 

283 284 

301 302 

322 323 

340 341 

358 359 



214 
307 
339 

312 

284 
336 

167 
209 

241 
265 
285 
306 
324 
342 
360 



151 154 

284 285 

321 322 
361 

125 158 

265 268 

306 309 

332 333 

358 359 

309 361 



169 190 

290 291 

324 328 

168 182 

271 272 

310 312 

334 335 

360 361 



274 291 300 306 

149 152 154 167 

306 309 313 318 

352 360 



193 214 217 239 251 258 

292 300 301 306 307 309 

333 335 336 337 339 346 

190 201 205 208 214 217 

273 282 285 288 292 293 

313 317 318 319 321 326 

539 342 343 346 347 349 

362 363 364 365 



309 322 330 333 335 361 
190 200 207 214 217 267 
319 320 322 323 324 326 



217 285 298 300 301 305 312 313 324 350 

276 290 324 330 334 346 350 365 

290 296 300 312 313 317 318 324 329 344 

365 

239 251 272 278 285 298 301 305 309 312 

351 352 361 

149 152 155 190 197 198 203 207 208 213 

251 258 259 272 273 278 284 285 290 291 

298 300 301 305 306 309 312 313 315 316 

323 324 327 328 329 330 332 335 338 339 

351 352 357 358 360 361 



58 



THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



Nguna. . . 46 74 

336 338 
Nifilole. .149 212 

361 

Norbarbar 75 

278 285 

324 328 
361 

Omba ... 42 74 

239 254 

309 312 

360 361 
Paama . . 252 274 
Pak 122 123 

272 275 

328 333 

Raluana.214 294 

Retan.. . 46 122 

Ruavatu.313 317 

Saa 122 187 

294 298 

352 356 

Santo. . . 47 153 

302 305 

Sasar 46 123 

306 307 

361 

Savo. . . . 190 214 

Sesake. . 39 40 

206 209 

274 278 

317 318 

356 357 

Solomon Islands 

324 330 

Tangoan Santo 41 

302 313 

Tanna...i47 150 

256 251 

317 319 

361 363 
Treasury Island 

Uea 265 274 

Ugi 214 250 

Ulawa...i22 190 

301 309 

360 361 

Vanikoro 273 

Vanua Lava 291 

Vaturanga 122 

259 272 

318 324 
V0I0W...122 147 

278 284 

318 322 

360 361 

Vuras... 46 122 

306 307 

346 356 

Wango. .122 149 

284 298 

337 339 



75 159 

346 350 

214 217 

122 147 

289 291 

331 333 

122 147 
275 278 

313 317 

312 329 

147 149 

278 292 

335 337 

314 336 

123 149 
361 

190 200 

300 307 

358 360 

1 99 206 
312 313 
147 190 
309 316 

239 250 

45 46 

212 214 

285 291 

322 329 

358 360 

190 243 

361 363 

147 148 

316 328 

168 173 

258 266 
321 322 

265 
290 

259 265 

200 2 14 
312 313 

292 

292 317 

123 147 

278 284 

328 329 

149 151 

285 290 

324 328 

123 147 

309 312 

357 358 

190 214 

300 305 

342 344 



206 214 240 261 266 294 301 317 318 321 

239 284 290 291 294 313 328 330 357 360 

149 190 193 212 214 217 239 251 265 272 

292 300 301 306 307 309 312 316 317 318 

335 336 337 338 344 35o 356 357 358 360 

149 152 153 169 190 206 207 212 214 217 

284 285 290 291 292 295 300 301 306 307 

318 324 333 335 336 338 346 352 356 358 



190 193 

300 301 

339 350 
358 

193 292 

214 217 

309 313 
361 

216 217 

316 318 
193 217 

317 318 



203 214 217 239 250 251 265 270 

306 307 309 312 316 317 318 324 

356 357 360 361 

312 317 318 331 336 344 357 358 

250 251 259 265 266 273 291 292 

317 318 329 330 338 339 350 351 

228 239 253 255 278 285 292 300 

324 336 343 346 352 355 356 

239 250 251 272 275 278 292 301 

328 333 335 337 343 350 356 360 



251 272 275 285 305 316 328 337 361 

147 149 151 153 158 162 169 194 200 203 

215 217 239 246 251 257 258 260 270 272 

292 294 296 298 300 301 305 307 310 312 

330 333 335 336 337 338 339 342 350 352 

361 

276 290 291 294 297 301 304 309 312 318 

193 194 206 209 217 239 247 265 278 301 

333 338 340 346 358 

190 194 200 207 216 217 218 238 240 247 

273 274 285 290 291 293 306 308 312 313 

324 328 333 334 337 340 350 352 358 360 



292 300 317 318 357 361 

217 239 250 251 259 265 291 294 298 300 

317 318 324 329 330 343 350 351 352 356 



190 200 201 206 214 215 217 251 257 258 

285 294 298 301 305 306 309 313 316 317 

330 335 336 338 346 352 358 360 

154 190 212 214 217 239 251 265 268 275 

291 294 300 301 306 307 309 312 316 317 

333 335 336 337 338 339 350 351 357 358 

149 214 217 239 251 278 284 285 292 301 

316 317 318 324 328 333 335 336 339 343 

360 361 

215 217 239 250 251 257 259 265 273 278 

307 309 312 313 317 318 328 329 330 335 

348 350 351 352 356 357 358 360 361 



POI.YNESIAN RKUCS IN MELANESIA. 59 

We shall next take up in a series of tables the relations of Melane- 
sian tongues with the Proto-Samoan (uniformly exhibited in bold- 
face type), the data upon which each of these mutations rests, and 
certain other results which have a bearing on our study. These 
tables are prepared for all the Melanesian languages for which a 
sufficiency of data is available. Several of the groups in the pre- 
ceding catalogue, while seeming to be well enough equipped with 
examples, have not been included in this tabular review for the 
reason that earlier compilers, to whose efforts we owe these data, 
have not been precise in identifying the language. Such omitted 
collections are to be seen under the headings of New Guinea, New 
Britain, New Ireland, large lands in which are many distinct 
languages. 

Prefixed to each of these tables will be found two particular notes. 
The figure following the note Polynesia expresses the number of 
words in the available material in each language which are identi- 
fied as of Polynesian stock. The note of Quality is a valuable index 
which will be explained and discussed at length after the preUmi- 
nary matter has been arranged. 

The final notes in each table call for slight explanation. Under 
the note Identical are assembled those words in which the Melane- 
sian is the same in consonant and vowel structure as either the 
Proto-Samoan or the modern Samoan, or where the vowel change 
is so slight as to be explained by the difference in the system of 
reducing the language to our alphabet by those missionary collec- 
tors whose zeal must serve as the excuse for their lack of skill. 
The second note refers to those words, otherwise identical, which 
have lost their ending by abrasion. Under Consonant Identity are 
listed those words of identical consonant skeleton where the vowels 
have undergone change, and the converse is the case under Vowel 
Identity. In the next pair of notes we record those cases where 
the consonant skeleton has undergone a mutation, but where the 
vowels remain constant or terminal abrasion has taken place. 



60 



THE POlrYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



AUTE. 

Polynesian 2 1 
Quality 57 

a a 

e 00 

i i u u 

1 ; 

ng ng n / mm 

h s, t 

s s, t, — 

V ku 

f 7/ 

k — , ng t m, — p 6 

a-a 217, 239, 250, 278, 291, 300, h-s 352 

309, 313, 317, 337, 350, 360 h-t 278 

i-i 259, 285, 291, 300, 313, 330, s-^ 239 

350 s-t 337 

0-0 259, 285, 309 s— 251 

u-u 239, 278, 306, 317, 330, 360 t-m 217 

i-l 309, 313, 350 t— 306, 350, 352 

ng-ng 285, 309, 350 m-w 217, 313, 317 

k — 300, 301, 306 \-ku 291 

k-ng 251 f-t; 259, 360 

n-/ 259, 317, 330 p-b 250, 285 

Identical 300, 309, 313 

Vowel identity 217, 300, 317, 330 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 259, 278, 285, 350, 360 

Terminal abrasion 306 

Frontal abrasion 250, 301, 306, 350, 352 

Frontal accretion 239, 291 



POI.YNESIAN REIylCS IN MBlvANESIA. 61 



ALO TEQEU 



Polynesian 26 
Quality 19 



a a, e, 0, u 
e e, u o e 
i e u u, e, i 

\ I, t, ng 
ng ng, n n n, t m m, ng 

h 
s f 

V w 
f V, w 

\i. g, w i t, m, — p /> 

a-o 123, 147, 214, 217, 250, 309, ng-n 350 

318 k-g 250, 251, 300, 301 

a-e 294, 324, 337, 350 k-w 306 

a-o 239, 307, 317, 328 n-n 147, 317, 343, 350 

a-tt 250, 307, 316 n-t 328 

e-e 122, 190 s-s 239, 251, 272, 337 

e-tt 272 t — 294, 306, 318, 324 

i-e 300 t-t 350 

O-e 123 t-m 217 

u-tt 272, 306, 316 mm 217, 316, 317, 318, 324, 32J 

u-e 294 m-ng 316 

u-i 343 v-w 307 

\-l 123, 307, 309, 350 i-v 122, 147, 214, 294 

\-ng 123 f-w 272, 360 

1-^ 335 P-/* 190. 250 

ng-ng 309 

Identical (terminally- 
abraded) 190, 309 

Consonant identity. . . .317, 337 

Consonant mutation: 
Vowel identity 147 

Terminal abrasion 147, 190, 214, 217, 239, 300, 3o6,''3i7,'3i8, 328 

Frontal accretion 301 

Terminal accretion 122, 324, 335, 350, 360 



62 



THK POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



AMBRYM. 

Polynesian 27 
Quality 44 

a a, e, i, u 
e a o o, u 
it u u, a, i, 
1 /, r 
ng ng n n m m 

h h, — 
s h 

\ f, w 
f V, b, h 
k k, g, h, — t t, s, dr p — 

a-a 147, 215, 258, 284, 300, 318, k-k 194, 300 

324 k-g 297 

a-e 239, 258, 324, 352 k-h 258 

a-* 293, 350 k— 305 

a-u 252 n-n 242, 290 

e-a 297 h-/i 215 

i-i 194, 215, 242, 290, 297, 300, h— 352 

305, 312, 350, 352 s-h 239, 252, 298 

0-0 252, 336, 356, 357 t-t 258, 324, 352, 356 

o-M 287, 357 t-s 329 

u-u 194, 212, 298 t-dr 357 

u-a 258 m-m 258, 312, 318, 324 

u-i 212, 239 v-/ 242 

U-O 212, 284, 329 V-W 291 

l-l 194, 212, 252, 284, 287, 297, f-V 147, 215, 290 

305, 312 f-h 290, 329 

!-»' 336, 350 f-& 287 

ng-ng 274, 336, 350 p— 284 

Identical 194, 300, 305 

Identical (terminally 

abraded) 312, 356 

Consonant identity. . . .212, 274, 284, 318, 324, 352 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 215 

Terminal abrasion 147, 242, 287, 290, 312, 318, 329 

Frontal abrasion 284, 305, 350 

Frontal accretion 212, 242, 274, 298 

Terminal accretion. . . .258, 336 



POI.YNESIAN REUCS IN MELANESIA. 



63 



ANEITYUM. 



i, a, 



ng ng, k, g, nj 



a a, 
a, i o 
e, o 
I, 



e, I, 0, u 
0, i, u 
u u, e, 
k 



Polynesian 67 
QUAUTY 46 



i, 0, V, p 



ny 

h f 
h 



m 7n 



k k, g, ng 

a-a 147, 188, 198, 207, 214, 217, 
229, 256, 258, 260, 262, 279, 
282, 291, 293, 294, 307, 309, 
312, 313, 317, 318, 320, 323, 

324, 337, 339, 340, 350 
a-e 198, 216, 217, 256, 268, 278, 

294 

a-i 271, 274, 350 

a-o 124, 294 

a-u 168, 307, 316, 328 

e-e 173, 240 

e-a 126 

e-i 191 

i-i 154, 194, 204, 241, 268, 288, 

291, 319, 323 

i-a 154 

i-e 342 

i-o 269 

0-0 126, 205 

Ori 285 

0-w 205 

U-U 168, 194, 269, 273, 288, 294, 

320, 326, 344 

u-e 278, 306 

u-t 271 

u-o 329, 360 

u-v 206 

u-p 262 

\-l 191, 228, 241, 307, 309, 310, 

316, 320, 339, 349 
\-r 126, 194, 205, 260, 268, 288, 

335 
l-k 312, 350 
l-j 154, 312 

Identical 126, 173, 194, 241, 293, 

294, 319, 323, 335 
Identical (ter. abra) . 198, 207, 256, 282, 317, 

349 
Consonant identity. . 124, 285, 301, 316, 324 

Vowel identity 318 

Consonant mutation: 

Vowel identity. . .262, 283, 288, 291, 342 
Vowel identity (ter. 

abra.) 147, 188, 273, 309 



t t, s, th 



P, 
I 



u, k, w, h 



ng-ng 285, 350 
ng-fe 309 

342, 309 

274 

126, 194, 269, 

188, 258, 306, 

191, 204 

147, 271, 294, 

328 

278 

340 

339 

188, 198, 206, 
204, 205 
126, 207, 216, 
268, 269, 274, 
306, 324, 347, 
318, 327, 337 
168 

124, 191, 198, 
258, 274, 282, 
317, 318, 319, 
326, 328, 340 

293, 294 
147 
206 
214 

147, 271, 273, 
283 

294, 310 

307 

291 

124, 173, 207, 

279 

Terminal abrasion. 147, 
270, 
316, 

Frontal accretion. .147, 
228, 
270, 

319, 
Terminal accretion 206, 

324, 



tig-g 

ng-nj 

k-k 

kg 

k-ng 

n-n 

n-ny 

h-fe 

h-y 
h-/ 

S-h 

t-t 



t-s 

t-th 

m-m 



f-p 
f-k 
f-u 
f-h 

f-w 
\-v 
\-p 
y-w 

v-P 

p-l 



301, 328 
361 

317 



[344 
323. 337, 342, 

217, 256, 258, 
282, 293, 294, 
349, 350 



216, 217, 256, 
294, 312, 316, 
320, 323, 324, 



[360 
288, 294, 329, 



[361 
241, 279, 285, 



154, 188, 193,214, 

273,285,306,309, 

318.328 

154, 204, 206, 217, 

229, 256, 268, 269, 

273,274,285,288, 

328,342,344 
274,307,310,319, 
326, 339, 340, 347 



64 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



ARAG. 

Polynesian 41 
QuAi^iTY 75 

a. a, e, 

e e, a, i 00 
i i u u, i, 

1 /, r 

ng ng n n, I mm 

h h 

s h 

\ w, — 

f V, w 

kg t t, d, h p p, V, kpw 

a-o 152, 160, 193, 209, 214, 215, n-n 285, 290, 292, 309, 317, 328, 

217, 250, 258, 284, 290, 291, 330 

292, 294, 309, 312, 313, 317, n-l 259 

318, 324, 328, 352, 356 h-h 215, 278, 352 

a-e 278, 300 s-h 239 

a-o 357 t-t 160, 209, 217, 258, 294, 306, 

e-e 122, 153, 190, 290, 318 318, 324, 352, 356 

e-a 272 t-d 357 

e-i 152 t-h 329 

i-i 149, 193, 215, 259, 290, 291 m-w 217, 258, 312, 313, 317, 318, 

300, 312, 313, 329, 330, 352, 324, 328 

0-0 153, 160, 259, 285, 309, 326, \-w 291 

356, 357 V— 152 

u-u 212, 258, 272, 278, 284, 292, f-7; 122, 193, 214, 215, 272, 290, 

294, 306, 317, 328, 330 292, 294 

U-i 212, 329 f-w 259 

u-o 239 p-p 190, 250 

l-l 152, 153, 212, 284, 312, 313 p-V 284 

l-r 149, 160, 335, 336 p-kpw 285 

ng-ng 209, 309, 336 
k-g 149, 193, 250, 258, 300, 301, 
306, 357 

Identical 153, 160, 190, 209, 217, 309, 312, 313, 317, 318, 

324, 328, 330, 335, 336, 352, 356 

Consonant identity. . . .152, 212 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 193, 214, 215, 258, 259, 284, 285, 290, 291, 292, 

294, 306 

Frontal abrasion 329 

Terminal accretion. . . .250, 272 
Inner abrasion 152 



POLYNESIAN RBWCS IN MELANESIA. 



65 



BAKI. 

Polynesian 46 
Quality 26 

a a, e, i, 0, u 
e e, a, i, o 0, i 
i i, 0, u \x u, i 

1 /, j, mj 
ng ng, n, g n n mm 

h— 
s, y, k 

\ V, u 
f V, b, mb 
k k, mk t t, j, dr p b, mb 

a-a 147, 240, 263, 292, 308, 309, \-j 309, 312, 313 

313, 340 \-mj 336 

SL-e 156, 254, 315, 317, 320, 340, rvg-ng 285, 336, 346 

346, 350, 352a ng-n 308, 350 

a-i 350 ng-g 309 

a-o 156,228,278,292,312,364 k-fe 149,156,194,211,305 

a-M 290 k-mfe 297 

e-e 190 n-TC 147, 156, 254, 290, 292, 317, 

e-a 240 32 1 

Q-i 210, 297 h — 278, 340 

e-o 247, 290 s-^" 182 

\-i 149, 194, 211, 254, 273, 290, s-h 263 

297> 308, 321, 346, 350, 352, i-t 247, 346, 350, 352 

362 i-j 210, 211, 346, 358 

i-o 285 t'dr 359 

i-M 3o5> 313 m-w 156, 254, 312, 313, 315, 317, 

0-0 147, 263, 282, 285, 309, 336, 320, 321, 340 

362 \-v 210 

0-* 336 y-u 291 

u-« 156, 182, 194, 211, 228, 240, f-v 254, 290, 292 

272, 278, 282, 292, 317, 320, f-6 273, 282, 290 

321, 358, 359 i-mb 147 

n-i 247, 359, 364 p-6 190, 285 

\-l 149, 182, 194, 228, 297, 305, p-ot6 190, 247 

308, 315, 320, 350, 359, 362, 

364 

Identical 194, 254, 362 

Consonant identity. ... 156, 340, 352 

Vowel identity 182, 273 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 147, 190, 211, 282 

Frontal accretion 149, 228, 247, 320 

Terminal accretion .... 305, 358 
Metathesis 298, 321 



66 



THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



BARAVON. 



Polynesian 30 
Quality 66 



a a, e 
e e, a o o, a, e, u 

i i, u u u 

I /, r, — 
ng ng n n m m 

h— 
s 

\ V, TJ) 

i V, p, w 
k i, — it, nd, k p p, b, mb 

a-a 74, 147, 156, 207, 214, 215, k-k 149 

217, 279. 284, 290, 291, 294, k— 156, 300, 323 
313, 320, 323, 324, 346 n-n 74, 147, 156, 290 

a-e 360 h — 215 

e-e 190, 257 t-t 74, 207, 217, 294, 324, 346, 

e-c 122 358 

i-i 149, 215, 290, 313, 319, 323, t-nd 329 

346 t-k 270 

i-« 74 mm 156, 217, 257, 313, 319, 320, 

0-0 336 323, 324, 327 

0-a 147, 257 \-v 291 

o-^ 257 y-w 122, 147 

o-u 285 f-i; 215, 329, 360 

u-n 156, 207, 270, 273, 284, 320, f-p 273 

358, 360 f-vj 122, 147, 214, 290, 294 

1-/ 313, 320, 336 p-p 284 

l-r 257, 327, 358 p-6 190, 285 

1 — • 284 p-mh 207 

ng-ng 285, 336, 346 

Identical 217, 313, 324, 336, 346, 358 

Consonant identity. ... 74, 149, 257, 327 

Vowel identity 156, 284, 320 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 207, 214, 215 

Terminal abrasion. . .273, 290, 294 

Terminal abrasion 149, 270, 273, 285, 290, 294, 300 

Frontal accretion 74, 215, 291, 336 

Terminal accretion 285, 300, 323, 336 

BAURO. 

e-o 47 h-s 47 

a 47 t— 47 



POI.YNESIAN RKI.ICS IN MELANESIA. 



67 



BELAGA. 



Polynesian i 7 
Quality 100 



a a, t, at 
& e, i 00 

\ i \\ u 

1 /, r 

ng ng n. n m m 

h h, th 

s s, th 

V -v 

f V 

k 9, — it Tp V, vih 

SL-a 147, 152, 203, 207, 258, 284, k-^- 258, 300, 338 

300, 317, 338, 339, 342, 346, k— 211 

352 n-w 290, 317, 342, 343 

a-i 203 h-h 338 

a-ai 290 h-th 352a 339 

e-e 290, 338 s-^ 203 

e-i 152 s-th 342 

i'i 211, 285, 290, 300, 342, 346, t-t 207, 211, 258, 343, 346, 352a 

352 m-vr 258, 317 

0-0 285 v-^■ 152 

U-u 207,211,258,284,317,343 1-v 147,290 

1-/ 152, 284, 339 p-v 284 

I-r 203 p-wb 207, 285 

ng-ng 285, 346 

Identical 317, 346 

Terminal abrasion 343 

Consonant identity. . . .152, 203 

Vowel identity 211 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 207, 258, 284, 285, 290, 300, 338, 339, 342, 352 

Terminal abrasion. .147 

Terminal abrasion 147, 343 

Terminal accretion . . . .339 



68 



THIS POI^YN^SIAN WANDERINGS. 



BIERIAN. 

PoivYNESIAN 52 
Quality 48 

a a, e, 0, u 

e e, a, i 00 
\ i, u u u, i 

I I, m, — 

ng ng, m n n, I mm 

h h 

s h, s \ u 

i t, V, h 

k fe t t, d, s, h p b, m 

a-a 156, 199, 207, 216, 217, 240, 1 — 364 

256, 258, 260, 263, 270, 278, ng-ng 285, 309, 336, 350 

290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 300, ng-m 199 

302, 309, 312, 313, 315, 317, k-k 156, 258, 297, 300, 302, 305, 

318, 322, 323, 324, 340, 352, 323 

364 n-n 156, 292, 317, 321 

a-e 320, 350 n-l 259 

a-o 148, 350 h-h 278, 340, 352 

a-u 252 s-j- 323 

e-e 210, 290, 311, 318 s-h 252, 263, 298, 344 

e-a 240 t-t 148, 199, 216, 217, 256, 258, 

e-i 297 270, 293, 294, 302, 318, 324, 

i-i 259, 270, 290, 291, 297, 298, 358 

300, 302, 312, 321, 323, 329, t-d 210 

350, 352 t-s 350, 352, 356 

i-u 365 t-h 329 

0-0 252, 259, 263, 285, 309, 311, m-m 156, 216, 217, 258, 312, 313, 

336 315, 317, 318, 320, 321, 322, 

u-u 148, 216, 258, 270, 278, 292, 323, 324, 340 

294, 298, 317, 320, 321, 344, \-u 291 

358, 364 f-/ 282, 290, 292 

U-i 156, 329 i-v 210, 259, 293, 294, 329 

l-l 252, 260, 297, 305, 309, 311, f-6 148 

312, 315, 320, 336, 350 p-6 285 

l-m 322 p-w 207 

Identical 216, 217, 256, 258, 260, 270, 290, 292, 302, 312, 

317, 318, 323, 324, 336, 340, 358 

Consonant identity. . . . 156, 297, 320 

Vowel identity 263 

Consonant mutation: 

Vowel identity 199, 210, 294 ' 

Terminal abrasion. .285 

Terminal abrasion 207, 305, 356 

Frontal abrasion 313 

Frontal accretion 210, 256, 263, 278, 293, 297, 298, 302, 309, 311, 

312, 315, 320, 336, 344, 358 

Terminal accretion .... 344 

Metathesis 321 



POIvYNESIAN R^UCS IN MEI.ANESIA. 69 

BOUGAINVILLE. BRIERLY ISLAND. BRUMER ISLAND, 

a-a 192, 350 a-a 294, 317, 324, a-a 324 

•-* 259, 350 340, 347 i-i 298 

i-e 149 e-e 190 u-u 298, 344 

0-0 259 e-i 190, 347 s-i' 344 

l-l 192, 350 h-s 340 s-sh 298 

l-r 149 t-t 324, 347 t-t 324 

ng-w9 350 t-^ 294 

k-& 149 n-n 317 

n-/ 259 m-w 317, 324, 340 

t-t 192 f-p 294 

t-wd 350 p-6 190 

f-h 259 

p-/> 192 

BUGOTU. 

Polynesian 33 

QuAiviTY 79 

a a, ai, 
e e, a o 0, a 

\ i u u, 

1 /, r, t, th 
ng ng n n, ng, gn m m, r 

h /i 
s h 

V m6 
f 7; 
k fe, ^ t ii, wd, ife p p, mb 

a-a 147, 213, 214, 217, 239, 275, ng-ng 213, 285, 309, 346 

284, 309, 312, 313, 316, 317, k-k 251 

322, 328, 338, 339, 346, 351, kg 275, 301, 305, 306, 338 

352 n-n 147, 290, 317, 330 

a-ai 290 n-ng 351 

a-o 275 n-gn 328 

e-e 122, 257, 290, 338 h-h 278, 298, 338, 339, 352 

e-a 272 s-h 239, 251 

i-i 285, 290, 298, 305, 312, 313, t-t 217, 306, 343 ,346, 352 

329. 330, 346, 352 t-nd 329 

0-0 147, 285, 309 t-th 343 

o-a 257 m-TO 217, 257, 312, 313, 316, 317, 

u-u 239, 272, 278, 284, 298, 306, 322, 328 

316, 317, 328, 329, 330, 351 m-r 322 

u-0 343 \-mb 291 

l-l 257, 305, 312, 313, 316 f-v 122, 147, 213, 214, 272, 290, 

l-r 272, 284, 322 329 

It 339 p-p 284 

l-th 309 p-mb 285 

Identical 217,251,278,312,313,316,317,330,346,352 

Consonant identity 301, 305 

Consonant mutation: 

Vowel identity 147,213,214,239,284,285, 290,298,306,309,329,338,339, 351 

Frontal accretion 272, 275, 305, 328 

Terminal accretion. . . .339, 351 



70 



THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



BUKA. 

Polynesian 24 
Quality 70 

a. a, e, u 

e e, a, o 0, a, u 

\ i, a, e n u, a, 

1 I, r, nd 

ng ng, n tl n, gn, I m m 

h J 

S s, h 

V 

f h 

k — t t, d, s p b, mb, V, w 

a-a 207, 217, 313, 318, 324, 328, ng-ng 285, 308, 350 

350, 352, 360 ng-n 285 

a-c 158, 300, 308 k— 300, 306 

a-w 239 tin 259, 330, 343 

e-e 190, 318, 363 ti-gn 328 

e-o 190, 257 n-l 259 

e-o 247 h-j 352, 362 

i-i 259, 285, 300, 308, 343, 350, s-i- 298, 343, 344 

352 s-^^ 239 

i-a 355 i-t 207, 217, 306, 318, 324, 350, 

ie 298, 313, 330 352, 355 

0-0 259, 285, 263 t-d 350 

o-a 355 t--^ 247 

o-M 285 m-w 158, 217, 258, 313, 318, 324, 

u-u 158, 207, 237, 247, 298, 306, 328 

328, 330, 344 *-'^ 259, 360, 363 

u-a 343 P-^ 190, 285 

u-o 298, 360 p-mb 207 

\l 313, 350 P'-y 247 

1-J- 257, 355 P-'"' 190 

l-nd 308 

Identical 217, 318, 324, 328, 350, 352 

Terminal abrasion . . . 344 
Consonant identity. . . 330 
Vowel identity 207, 285, 306 

Terminal abrasion 285 

Frontal accretion 158, 239, 285, 298, 306, 308 

Terminal accretion . . . .257, 308 



POI.YNESIAN REUCS in MEI.ANESIA. 



71 



BULULAHA. 



Polynesian 

OUAUTY 



19 
74 



e e 



ng ng 



a a 



1 Z 
n n 

h s 

s ^ 



O 



U 2f, 



m 7», 



















V 


w 


















f 


h 




k— 








t t, - 


- 




P 


P 


217, 


239, 250, 


291, 


300. 


301, 


k— 


250, 


300, 


301, 


306 


309, 


317, 350, 


351. 


352, 


360 


n-n 


259. 


317. 


330 




190 










h^ 


352 








259. 


291, 300, 


329. 


330, 


350, 


S-i- 


239. 


298, 


351 




352 










U 


329 








259, 


309 








t— 


217, 


306, 


350, 


352 


239, 


298, 306, 


317, 


329. 


330, 


m-m 


217, 


317 






351. 


360 








\-w 


291 








301 










i-h 


259- 


329. 


360 




309, 


350 








v-P 


190 









a-a 

e-e 
i-i 

0-0 
u-u 

u-i 
\l 

ng-ng 309, 350 

Identical 190, 300, 309, 317, 330 

Consonant identity .217 

Vowel identity . . . .250, 306, 3,50, 352 



Consonant mutation: 

Vowel identity. .259, 291, 329, 360 
Frontal abrasion. .351 
Frontal accretion. .239, 298 



DENI. 



1 t 



ng 



k k 

a-a 214, 278, 324, 339, 360 

a-e 307, 335 

a-w 307, 324 

i-i 194 

0-0 285 

u-u 194, 212, 278, 306, 335, 358 

1-/ 194, 212, 307, 335, 339 

k-k 194, 306 

Identical 194, 212, 278, 306, 339, 

358 



a a, 


c, 


u 










1 / 






n 






h h, 


— 




s 







u n 



Polynesian i i 
Quality 63 



m m 



t /, k 

\\-h 
h— 

t-^ 
t-fe 

m-m 
\-b 
f-v 
p-mh 



V b 
f V 
p mb 



339 
278 

306, 358 
324 
324 
307 

214, 360 
285 ^ 



Consonant mutation: 
Vowel identity. . 285 



72 



THE^ POIyYNBSIAN WANDERINGS. 



DUFAURE ISLAND. 



a-a 167 
a-u 167 
u-u 167 



l-n 167 
ng— 167 



DUKE OF YORK. 

Polynesian 38 
Quality 79 

a a 
e e, a o 0, u 

\ i, u u ti, a, 

1 I, r 
ng ng, n n n m ni 

h— 
s 



a-a 



e-e 
e-a 
i-i 

i-u 
0-0 
o-u 
u-u 

U-a 

u-o 
U 

\-r 

ng-ng 



74, 
217, 

309, 

328, 

122 

272, 

149. 

313, 

321, 

269, 

285, 
207, 
328, 
325 
314 
149, 
316, 
320, 
169, 



k k, — 

147, 164, 169, 207, 214, 
275, 290, 292, 294, 300, 
313, 316, 318, 320, 324, 
350, 352 

290 

169, 269, 290, 300, 312, 

319, 321, 327, 350, 352 

329 
336 

325 

272, 292, 316, 320, 327, 

329, 332, 343, 358 



164, 309, 312, 313, 314, 

336, 350 

332 

285, 309, 336, 350 



t t, nd 



V 

f b, w, 
P b 



ng-n 74 

k-k 149, 269, 275 

k — 300 

n-w 147, 169, 290, 292, 321, 328, 

343 
352 
74, 164, 207, 217, 269, 294, 

318, 324, 325, 343, 350, 352, 

358 

329 
m-w 217, 312, 313, 314, 316, 318, 

319, 320, 321, 324, 325, 327, 
328 

f-w 122, 147, 169, 214, 290, 292, 

294, 329 
f-6 272 
f— 360 

p-6 207, 285 



h— 

U 



t-nd 



Identical 217," 269, 275, 313, 316, 320, 324, 327, 328, 336, 

350, 352, 358 
Terminal abrasion. . . 74, 149, 309, 312, 318, 343 



Consonant identity . . 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity . . . . 

Terminal abrasion . 



Terminal abrasion . 



321, 325 



122, 147, 169, 207, 214, 272, 292, 300 
,294 

74, 147, 164, 169, 207, 217, 231, 275, 290, 292, 
294, 300, 309, 313, 316, 318, 320, 324, 328, 350, 
352 

Frontal accretion 272, 332 

Terminal accretion 164, 169, 300, 314, 320, 336, 358 



POIvYNESIAN RELICS IN MELANESIA. 



73 



EPI. 



I I 



ng 



k k 







Polynesian 


14 






Quality 


43 


a. a, u 








e a, 0, 


a 








u 


u, i 




1 I, r 








n n 




m m 




h h 








s s 









t t 



a-a 200 l-r 

a.-u 202 k-fe 

e-a 47, i86 n-w 

e-o 363 h-fe 

i-i 47, 200, 330 s-^ 

0-0 75, 363 t-t 

o-a 186 mm 

u-u 75, 200, 212, 330, 343 f-v 

u-i 212, 286, 330 p-v 

\-l 200, 212 p-mb 

Identical 75, 200, 330, 343 

Consonant identity. . . .202, 212 

Terminal abrasion 286 

Frontal abrasion 75 

Frontal accretion 186, 202, 343 



V 

f V 

p V, vib 



75 

202 

286, 330, 343 

47, 363 
343 

47, 75 
200, 202 

363 
186 
286 



74 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



EROMANGA. 



Polynesian 26 
Quality 58 



a a, e, i, 0, u 
e e 00 

i i, e, o u u, e, o 

1 /, r, h 
ng ng, g n n mm 

\\ h, s 
s ^ 

V u 

f V, p, b, s 
k k, h t t, d, s P P, ^np 

a-a 218, 270, 274, 294, 337, 338, ng-g 350 

349. 360 k-k 194, 305, 361 

ae 217, 278, 317, 350 k-h 338 

a-i 217, 290 n-n 290, 317 

a-o 350 h-/j 278 

a-u 324 h-^ 206, 338 

e-e 240 s--y 337 

i-i 194, 270, 274, 290, 305, 312, t-t 217, 270, 274, 294, 324, 349, 

350 350 

i-e 206 t-d 3520 

i-o 305 t-s 329 

0-0 282, 285 m-ni 217, 274, 312, 317, 324 

u-u 194, 240, 270, 273, 282, 360 v-u 291 

u-e 278 f-xi 282, 290, 294 

u-o 317, 329 f-p 206, 2736 

1-/ 312, 349, 350 f-b 329, 360 

1-r 194, 312 f-J 290 

\h 305 P-^ 285 

ng-ng 274 p-77t/> 218, 361 

Identical 194, 218, 270, 274, 285, 337 

Terminal abrasion. . .312, 349 
Consonant identity. . . .217, 317 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 282, 350, 360 

Terminal abrasion. . .273, 294 

Terminal abrasion 206, 273, 290, 294, 312, 329, 338, 349 

Frontal accretion 270, 273, 282, 291, 312 

Terminal accretion. . . .218, 305, 317, 337 



POI.YNBSIAN RELICS IN MELANESIA. 75 



FAG AN I. 

Polynesian 39 
Quality 82 

a c, e, i, 

e e, a o 0, a 

i i, e, u u u 

1 r 

ng ng n n, ng, I mm 

h J 

s s 

V / 

f /, V 

k k, g 't t, k, — , w p p, b, j 



a-a 147, 214, 217, 239, 250, 258, 
278, 292, 294, 300, 307, 309, 
312, 313, 316, 318, 324, 328, 
342, 350, 352. 357, 360 

a-e 290 

a-i 292 

a-o 250 

e-e 190, 257, 290, 318 

e-o 122, 272 

i-i 149, 259, 273, 278, 285, 300, 

312, 329, 330, 342, 350, 3526 
\-e 290 

i-u 298, 313 

0-0 147, 259, 285, 309, 357 

o-a 257 

nu 239, 258, 272, 273, 292, 294, 

298, 316, 317, 328, 329, 330, 

351, 358, 360 
\r 257, 272, 278, 307, 309, 312, 

313, 316, 350, 358 
ng-ng 278, 285, 309, 350 



Identical 147, 190, 239, 294, 309, 312, 316, 317, 328, 330, 

342, 360 
Consonant identity. . . .122, 257, 272, 290, 292, 298, 313 

Vowel identity 217 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 214, 258, 259, 273, 278, 285, 300, 307, 318, 329, 

350, 352 

Terminal abrasion 324 

Frontal abrasion 351, 352 

Frontal accretion 298, 351 

Terminal accretion. . . .257 



k-Jb 


149. 


250 










k-g 


214, 


251, 


258, 


300, 


357 




n-n 


147, 
342 


290, 


292, 


317, 


328, 


330, 


n-ng 


351 












n-l 


259 












h-s 


352i 


» 










s-s 


239, 


251, 


298, 


342, 


351 




t-t 


258 












t-k 


329, 


350 










t— 


294, 


318, 


352, 


357, 


358 




t-w 


217 












m-m 


217, 


257, 


258, 


312, 


313, 


316, 




317, 


318, 


324, 


328 






v-/ 


307 












f-/ 


122, 
294. 


147, 
329- 


214. 
360 


259, 


290, 


292, 


f-v 


272, 


273 










p-p 


190 












p-b 


285 












p-/ 


250 













76 THE POlvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

GOG. 

Polynesian 38 
Quality 76 

a a, e 
e e, 00 

i i, e, u u u, a, i, 

1 I, r, ng, nd 

ng ng, n n n, ng mm 

h ^ 

s s 

\ V, w 

f t;, w 
k. g, w t t, m p b, 'V, mh, kpw 

a-a 123, 147, 203, 214, 217, 239, ng-n 285 

268, 301, 307, 309, 313, 317, kg 151, 251, 300, 301, 338, 357 

318, 322, 324, 328, 339, 356 k-w 306 

a-e 324 n-n 147, 317, 328, 343 

e-e 122, 190 n-ng 2i4-^ 

e-o 272 h-^ 206, 338, 339 

i-i 154, 312, 313, 342 s-j' 203, 239, 251, 278, 342 

ie 300 t-t 268, 306, 318, 324, 343, 356, 

i-u 206 357, 358 

0-0 147, 285, 309, 336, 356, 357 t-m 217 

u-u 239, 284, 298, 306, 343, 358 m-w 217, 312, 313, 317, 318, 322, 

u-a 151 324, 328 

u-i 301 y-v 307 

VL-o 272 y-w 206 

I-/ 123, 154, 203, 284, 307, 309, f-v 122, 147, 214 

312, 313, 339 f-w 272, 360 

1-r 268, 272, 322, 336, 358 p-v 284 

l-ng 123 p-6 190 

l-nd 335 p-mb 151 

ng-ng 154, 298, 309, 336 p-kpw 285 

Identical 239, 309, 313, 356, 358 

Terminal abrasion. . . 154, 203, 268, 307, 312, 317, 318, 328, 336, 343 
Consonant identity. . . .301, 324 

Vowel identity 217, 306 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 147, 214 

Terminal abrasion. . . 190, 206, 284, 285, 338, 339, 342, 357 

Terminal abrasion 151, 154, 190, 206, 268, 284, 285, 300, 306, 307, 

312, 317, 318, 324, 328, 338, 342, 343 

Frontal accretion 203, 272, 298, 301, 312, 339 

Terminal accretion. . . .122, 336 



POIyYNESIAN RKI/ICS IN MEI/ANESIA. 



77 



GUADAIvCANAR. 



Polynesian 6 
Quality 66 



a a 
e a 

I i u u, i 

1 r, - 

ng ng n n mm 

h th 

s s 

V 

f t; 
k t p & 



a-a 


278, 309, 328 


ng-ng 


285, 298, 309 


e-a 


272 


n-n 


328 


i-t 


285 


h-th 


278 


0-0 


285, 309 


s-s 


298 


U-M 


272, 278, 298, 328 


mm 


328 


u-i 


298 


f-v 


272 


l-r 


272 


p-b 


285 


1— 


309 







Identical 278, 328 

Consonant identity. . . .296 
Consonant mutation : 
Vowel identity 285 



ng 



k k 



a-a 


324 




a-e 


294 




a-o 


318 




i-i 


194, 


259 


0-0 


259 




U-tt 


194 




u-o 


294 




k-k 


194 




Identical 




Vowel identity 



lAI. 









Polynesian 5 








Quality 40 


a a, 


e, 







1 r 




u u, 





n n 

h 

s 






m m 

V 


t t, i 


k 




f V, - 

p 


l-r 
n-n 

t-t 

t-k 

m-m 

f-v 

f— 


194 

259 
294 

318, 
318, 
294 

259 


324 
324 





.194 

• 324 



78 



the; poi^ynesian wanderings. 



KABADI. 



Polynesian 3 
Quality 33 



a-a 


74, 


292 


i-» 


330 




l-U 


74 




n-ii 


292, 


330 


Identical . . 





330 



ng-n 74 

n-n 292, 330 
t-k 74 

i-v 292 



KABAKADA. 



a-o 147, 214, 320 








\-r 


320 


e-c 122 








ng-ng 


285 


\-i 327 , 








n-n 


147 


0-0 147 








m-vt 


320, 327 


o-w 285 








f-w 


147, 214 


\x-u 320, 327 








p-b 


285 


1-/ 327 












Identical 


• 214, 


320, 


327 







Polynesian 6 
Quality 50 



KALIL. 



a-a 


294, 


322, 


352 


i-i 


312 






\-u 


329 






o-u 


296 






n-u 


329 






\-l 


312, 


322 




Identical . . 











Polynesian 6 






Quality 17 


n-n 


296 




\y-s 


352 




t-t 


294, 352 




i-dd 


329 




mm 


312, 322 




Ui 


294, 296, 


329 



31^ 



POIyYNESIAN REI/ICS IN MElvANESIA. 79 



KING. 

Polynesian 32 
OUAUTY 53 

a a, e, i, o, u 
e e, a, i, o o 0, a, i, u 
i i, e, u u u, i 

1 /, r 

ng ng, n n n, ng m ?;i 

h ^ 

s ^ 

V 

i V, w, p 
k k it, d, k, n V b, nib 

a-a 147, 213, 217, 258, 294, 309, U 309, 312, 313, 336, 349, 350 

313, 318, 324, 329, 350, 352 \r 320, 358 

*-^ I5i> 323 n%-ng 213, 264, 309, 336, 350 

a-i 320, 323 ng-» 74, 151 

a-o 213 k-fe 196 

a.-u 74, 266 n-n- 147, 151, 296, 321 

e-^ 151 n-TC<7 266, 342, 343 

e-a 313 h-^ 47, 352, 363 

®'* 47 S-5- 264, 323, 342, 343, 344 

e-o 247, 363 U 74, 196, 217, 247, 258, 266, 

i-i 47, 196, 312, 319, 321, 323, 294, 318, 324, 350, 352, 358 

352 t-d 47 

}-e 342 t-k 349 

•"^ 74 t-n 329 

o-^ 196, 336, 363 m-w 217, 258, 312, 313, 318, 319, 

0-0 264 320, 321, 323, 324 

^"* 349 f-x- 147, 213, 363 

o-u 296 i-ii) 294, 329 

U-M 258, 320, 321, 329, 343, 344, i-p 296 

358 p-6 247 

\x-i 247, 296 p-m6 151 

Identical 196, 217, 321, 324, 336, 358 

Terminal abrasion. . .309, 318, 344 
Consonant identity. . . .264, 312, 313, 320, 350 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 343, 352 

Terminal abrasion . . .294 

Terminal abrasion 266, 294, 309, 318, 329 

Frontal abrasion 151 

Frontal accretion 213, 266, 312, 318, 358 

Terminal accretion. . . . 147, 213, 264, 336, 343 
Metathesis 196 



80 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



I.AKON. 

PoiyYNESIAN 32 

Quality 75 

Sl a, e, i 
e a, e o 0, a 

{ i, e u u, au 

1 /, ng, dr 

ng ng, n n n m in 

h h 

s s, h 

V 

f x;, w 
k g, w i t, m P P, '^, kpw 

a-a 123, 147, 193, 214, 217, 239, ng-ng 309, 350 

292, 301, 309, 313, 317, 318, ng-n 285 

324, 328, 335, 337, 350, 351 k-g 193, 275, 301 

a-e 275, 324, 350 k-w 251, 306 

-n-i 275 n-n 147, 292, 328, 351 

e-e 190 h-h 206, 278 

e-o 122 s-h 239, 351 

i-i 193, 313 s-^ 337 

i-e 206, 312 t-t 306, 318, 343, 350, 356 

0-0 147, 285, 356 t-w 217 

o-a 123 mm 217, 312, 313, 317, 318, 328 

ix-u 278, 284, 292, 306, 328, 335, f-v 122, 147, 193, 214, 272, 292 

343, 351 f-w 206, 360 

u-au 239 p-p 190 

l-l 123, 284, 309, 312, 313, 350 p-v 284 

l-ng 123 p-kpvj 285 

i-dr 335 

Identical 214, 313, 328, 337, 351 

Terminal abrasion. . . 190, 278, 309, 318, 343, 356 
Consonant identity. . . .312, 317, 324, 350 

Vowel identity 217 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 147, 285 

Terminal abrasion. . .193, 206, 284, 292, 306, 351 

Terminal abrasion 190, 193, 206, 217, 278, 284, 292, 301, 306, 309, 

312, 317, 318, 343, 351, 356 

Frontal accretion 272, 301, 312 

Terminal accretion. . . .328, 335, 350 



POLYNESIAN REUCS IN M^I^ANESIA. 81 



LAMASSA. 

Polynesian 29 
Quality 69 

a a, e, u 

e e, a, o u 
I i, e, u u u, 0, i 

1 /, r, nl 

ng ng, n n n, ng mm 

h J 

s s 

V 

f /, "v, P, —, w 
k k t t, k, n p b, mb, m 

a-a 213, 216, 292, 294, 309, 313, k-k 196 

316, 317, 318, 324, 350 n-n 292, 296, 317, 343 

a-e 151, 350 n-ng 266, 342 

SL-u 74, 266 h-s 47, 280, 363 

e-e 151, 190 s-^ 342, 344 

e-a 47' U 47, 74, 196, 247, 266, 294, 

f-o 247 318, 324, 342, 350, 358 

i-t 47, 196, 312, 313, 319, 342 t-fe 216 

i-e 342 t-n 329 

i-u 74 m-w 216, 312, 313, 316, 317, 318, 

o-u 196, 285, 296, 363 319, 324 

u-u 247, 292, 316, 329, 343, 344, f-/ 292, 294 

358 ' f-v 280, 363 

U-o 216 f-p 296 

W-« 317, 343 i-w 329 

^-i 309, 312, 313, 350 f— 213 

l-nl 316 p-6 190, 247 

l-r 358 p-mb 151, 285 

ng-ng 213, 285, 309, 350 p-m 190 
ng-w 74, 151 

Identical 313, 319, 324, 344, 358 

Terminal abrasion. . .292, 294, 309, 312, 318 
Consonant identity. . . . 196, 213, 317, 343, 350 

Vowel identity 316 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 47, 247 

Terminal abrasion. . .151, 363 

Terminal abrasion 190, 266, 280, 285, 292, 294, 296, 309, 312, 318, 329, 

^ , , 342, 363 

Frontal abrasion 151, 213, 216 

Frontal accretion 216, 289, 344, 358 

Terminal accretion. . . .213 



82 



THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



LAMBELL. 

Polynesian 32 
Quality 81 

a a, e, 0, u 

e e, a, o 00, u 
I i, u u it, a, i, 

1 /, r 

ng ng, n n n, ng m m 

h ^ 

s s 

V 

f p, h 

k k ' t t, k, n p b, mb 

a-o 74, 347, 213, 216, 292, 294, l-r 320, 358 

309, 312, 316, 317, 318, 324, ng-ng 213, 264, 309, 336, 346, 350 

346, 350, 352 ng-n 74 

a-e 151, 342 k-k 149, 196 

a-o 321 n-n 147, 151, 292, 296, 317, 343 

a.-u 266 n-ng 266, 342 

e-e 151, 190 h-^ 47, 352 

e-a 47 s-s 264, 342, 344, 346 

e-o 247 t-t 47, 74, 196, 247, 266, 294, 

i-i 47, 149, 196, 312, 319, 342, 318, 324, 343, 346, 350, 352, 

346, 352 358 

i-u 74 t-k 216 

0-0 196, 264, 336 t-n 329 

o-u 296 m-m 216, 312, 316, 317, 318, 319, 

U-M 247, 292, 329, 343, 344, 358 320, 324 

u-a 316 f-p 296 

U-i 317, 343 f-/i 147, 213, 292, 294, 329 

u-o 216, 320 p-6 190, 247 

l-l 149, 309, 312, 316, 336, 350 p-mb 151 

Identical 196, 312, 319, 324, 336, 346, 358 

Terminal abrasion. . . 149, 264, 309, 318, 344 
Consonant identity. ... 74, 247, 316, 317, 343, 350 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 47, 213, 292, 342, 352 

Terminal abrasion. . .147, 151, 294 

Terminal abrasion 147, 149, 264, 266, 294, 296, 318, 329 

Frontal abrasion 151 

Frontal accretion 190, 264, 318, 344, 358 

Terminal accretion. . . .213, 336 



POI.YNESIAN REI/ICS IN MEI.ANESIA. 83 



LAUR. 

Polynesian 28 
Quality 75 

a a, e, u 
& e, a, i, o 0, i, u 
{ i u u, i, 0, h 

1 /, r 

ng ng, n n n, ng mm 

h ^ 

s s 

V 

f V, h 
kg i t, n p b, mb 

a-a* 156, 216, 217, 292, 294, 309, l-r 257 

313, 3i5> 316, 317. 318, 324, ng-«^ 309, 350 

350, 352 ng-n 151 

a-e 295 kg 156 

a-u 266 n-n 151, 156, 292, 296, 317 

e-e 151, 190 n-ng 266, 342 

e-a ' 47 h-^ 47, 352, 363 

e-* 257 s-^ 343, 344 

e-o 247 t-t 47, 2x6, 217, 292, 294, 309, 

i-i 47, 295, 312, 313, 319, 350 313, 315, 316, 317, 318, 324, 

0-0 363 350, 352 

O-i 257 t-n 329 

0-u 296 tn-m 156, 216, 217, 257, 312, 313, 

u-u 156, 216, 292, 316, 329, 344 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 324 

u-i 247 f-T; 363 

U-o 343 f-h 292, 294, 296, 329 

U-h 295 p-6 190, 247 

l-l 295, 309, 312, 313, 315, 316, p-mb 151 

350 

Identical 217, 313, 334, 344, 350 

Terminal abrasion. . .309, 312, 317, 318, 319 
Consonant identity. . . .257, 315, 316 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 47, 190, 292 

Terminal abrasion. . .151, 156, 294, 352, 363 

Terminal abrasion 151, 156, 266, 294, 296, 309, 312, 315, 317, 318, 

319, 329, 343, 352, 363 

Frontal abrasion 151 

Frontal accretion 216, 352 

Terminal accretion. . . .216, 257, 316 



84 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 







LEMARORO. 








a-a 
\-i 
u-u 

U 


258, 274 
274 
258 
274 


ng-ng 274 
k— 258 

t-l 258 








LEON. 




Polynesian id 








a a, e, 





Quality 90 






e e, 


i 









i i 




1 I, r 


u 




ng 






n n 
h 

s .y 


' 


m TO 


k g 






t— 




V w 

f V 

p 


a-a 147, 214 
a-e 193, 318, 337 
a-o 292, 307 
e-e 122 
e-* 203 
i-i 193 


0-0 
u-o 

l-l 
\-r 
k-g 
n-n 


187 
292 

307 
203 
193 
147, 1 


:87, 292 


s-.y 
t— 

m-m 
\-w 


203, 337 

318 

318 

307 

122, 147, 193, 

214, 292 


Identical 

Terminal abrasion . 
Consonant identity . . 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity . . . . 

Terminal abrasion . 


...214 
187 

• ■ 203, 

. . 122, 

• • 147, 


318, 337 

214 
193 


Terminal abrasion . . . 147, 187, 193, 
203, 292, 318 

Frontal accretion 187 

Terminal accretion. . . 122 
Metathesis 139 






UFU. 




Polynesian 7 












Quality 42 



e I 



a, e 
o 



1 I 



u u 



ng 



n n 
h 



m m 



k k 


t k 




V 

f 

P P 


a-a 214, 361 
a-e 318, 324 
e-« 318 
i-* 259, 330 


0-0 259 

n-u 326, 330, 361 

k k 361 

n-»t 259, 330 


t-fe 
m-TO 

v-P 


318, 324 
318, 324, 326 
361 


Identical 

Terminal abrasion . 
Frontal abrasion .... 


■ 259, 330, 361 

•■324 
..214 







POIyYNESIAN RKUCS IN M^I^ANESIA. 



85 



Polynesian 37 
Quality 84 

a a, e, i, o 
e e, a, i 00 
i i, u u u, i 

I I, r, h 
ng ng, n, g n n, ng m w, mw, ng 

h j 
s h 

\ V, p, w 
f V, w, h 
kg t t, nd p p, kw 

a-o 152, 169, 193, 195, 214, 217, k-g 149, 169, 193, 195, 251, 300, 
290, 300, 301, 312, 324, 328, 301, 305, 306, 357 

339, 350 n-TC 147, 169, 290, 317, 321, 328, 

a-e 147, 169, 309, 313, 316, 318, 343 

351 n-»»9 351 

a-* 307 h-y 339 

a-o 317 s-h 169, 239, 251, 351 

e-e 122 t-^ 195, 306, 318, 324, 343, 356, 

e-i 190, 193 357, 358 

e-a 290 t-nd 350 

i-i 149, 169, 290, 300, 305, 312, mm 217, 312, 316, 317, 318, 324, 

313, 350 328 
i-u 321 m-mw 313 

0-0 285, 307, 336, 356, 357 m-ng 316 

UU 212, 306, 316, 343, 351, 358 \-V 152 

U-i 239 V-p 291 

I-/ 212, 305, 307, 309, 312, 313, y-w 307 

316, 350 f-T; 122, 147, 193, 214, 290 

l-r 149, 152, 336 f-w 290 

l-h 335 f-h 169 

ng-ng 309, 336, 350 p-p 190 

ng-n 285 p-kw 285 

ng-9 169 

Identical 214, 312, 324, 358 

Terminal abrasion. . . 152, 212, 328, 336, 343, 356 
Consonant identity. . . .152, 190, 217, 309, 316, 317, 318, 321 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 169, 193, 195, 214, 285, 300, 305, 313, 350, 351 

Terminal abrasion. . . 149, 306, 357 

Terminal abrasion 122, 147, 149, 152, 190, 195, 212, 306, 309, 317, 

318, 321, 328, 339, 343, 356 

Frontal abrasion 217, 239 

Frontal accretion 290, 301, 312, 339, 351 

Terminal accretion .... 305, 336 



86 



THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



MAEWO. 

Polynesian 39 

QUAUTY 87 

a. a, e, 
e e, i 00 

\ i, u u u, i 

1 /, r, nd 
ng ng, n n n, I mm 

h s 
s s 

V tnb, — 
i V, w, — 
k k, g, w t t, nd p b, w, kmbw 

&-a 147, 152, 193, 214, 215, 239, ng-w 285 

278, 284, 292, 309, 312, 313, k-k 149 

316, 317, 318, 324, 328, 346, kg 193, 214, 301, 357 

352 k-w 306 

a-e 272, 291, 301, 337 ^-n 147, 292, 317, 328 

a-o 335 n-^ 259 

e-e 153, 190, 318 h-s 206, 215, 278, 352 

e-i 152, 303 s-^ 203, 239, 298, 337, 346 

i-i 149, 193, 215, 259, 291, 298, t-t 306, 318, 324, 346, 352, 357, 

312, 313, 329, 346 358 
i-u 206 t-nd 329 

0-0 147, 153, 206, 259, 285, 309, mm 312, 313, 316, 317, 318, 324, 

336, 357 328 

U-u 212, 239, 272, 278, 284, 292, \-mb 291 

298, 306, 316, 317, 328, 329, V— 152 

335, 358 f-v 147, 193- 214, 215, 272, 292 

U-* 301 f-w 206, 259 

1-/ 152, 153, 212, 284, 309, 312, f— 329, 360 

313, 316 p-b 190 
1-r 149, 203, 336, 358 p-w 284 
l-nd 335 p-kmbw 285 
ng-ng 309, 336, 346 

Identical 149, i53, 212, 239, 298, 309, 312, 313, 316, 317, 

318, 324, 328, 329, 336, 346, 358 
Consonant identity. . . .203, 337 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 147, 190, i93, 214, 215, 259, 272, 278, 284, 285, 

291, 292, 306 
Terminal abrasion. . .352, 357 

Frontal accretion 272, 298, 312 

Terminal accretion. . . .212, 259, 298, 301,324, 335, 346, 358 

MAI. 

a-a 281 s-.y 281 
u-u 281 v-6 281 
l-r 281 



POI.YNKSIAN REI.ICS IN MEI.ANESIA. 87 

MAKURA. 

















PoivYNESIAN 


13 
















Quality 


92 












a. a, e 














e 


e 











i 


*, 


u 




1 /, r 




u u, i 






ng n, g 








n n 
h h 
s 




m 7;i 

V 

f V, - 






k ngg, k 








t t 




p 




a-o 


74, 290, 302, 309, 


312, 


31 


7, 


ng-n 


74 






a-e 


335, 352 
165 








ng-^ 
k-fe 


309 
306 






e-e 


290, 297 








k-ngg 


297, 


302 




i-i 
\-u 


74, 165, 290, 297, 
321 


302 


, 3 


12 


n-re 
hh 


290, 
352 


317, 321 




n-u 


273, 321, 335 








t-t 


74, 


165, 302, 306, 352 




\x-i 


306 








m-m 


312, 


317, 321 




\-l 


297, 309. 312, 335 
165 








f-v 
f— 


290 

273 







Identical 312 Consonant mutation : 

Terminal abrasion, 317, 352 Vowel identity. . . 74, 290, 297, 302 

Consonant identity. .165, 306, 321 Terminal abrasion . 309 
Vowel identity 273 Terminal abrasion. . . 273, 306, 309, 317, 

352 
Frontal accretion. . . .321 

MALANTA. 

a-e 312, 324 I-/ 312 

\-i 312 m-m 312, 324 

malekula. 

Poi,yne;sian 68 

QuAUTY 51 

a a, e, i, o, u 
e e, i, ou o o, i, u 
i i, e, u u, u, e, i 

1 /, r 
ng ng, n, g, m n, n, r m m 

h s, j 
s s 

V V, iv, u, pw 
f V, p, b, — , /, mbw 
k k, kh, g, h, — t t, j, r p p, b, mb 



88 



THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



MALEKULA— Continued. 

a-a 74, 147, 157, 161, 193, 199, k-k 194, 217, 297, 323 

217, 239, 252, 302, 309, 312, k-kh 251 

316, 324, 339, 340, 345, 350, k-^ 211, 301, 306 

360 k-h 193, 258, 300, 302 

ae 74, 121, 156, 254, 258, 274, k— 156, 251, 301 

292, 318, 323, 324, 346, 239 n-n 147, 156, 157, 217, 242, 254, 

a-i 157, 208, 252, 294, 315, 317, 292, 317, 321, 328 

352 ni 259 

a-o 258, 320 h-s 47, 278, 339, 352, 363 

a-u 148, 328, 364 h-j 340 

e-e 47, 210 s-j 239, 252, 323, 344 

e-t 121, 297 t-t 47, 74, 148, 161, 199, 208, 

e-ou 247 210, 211, 217, 247, 258, 270, 

i-i 47, 74, 193, 194, 217, 242, 294, 306, 324, 345, 346, 347, 

254, 259, 289, 297, 300, 302, 352, 356, 358, 359 

312, 321, 350 t-j 208, 227, 289, 302, 318, 329 

i e 211, 254, 319 t-r 276, 294, 350 

i-u 362 m-w 156, 161, 254, 258, 312, 315, 

0-0 252, 259, 287, 356, 363 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 323, 

0-* 252 324, 328, 340 

O-u 285, 362 \-pw 242 

U-u 77, 156, 194, 228, 239, 246, v-w 242 

270, 278, 289, 292, 306, 316, v-u 291 

344, 358, 359. 360, 364 y~v 121 

n-i 211, 247, 329, 359 f-/ 287, 292 

vL-e 239 i-v 147, 161, 193, 210, 294, 329 

\-l 252, 316 f-p 246 

\r 121, 194, 228, 252, 287, 289, i-b 148, 259, 363 

297, 309, 312, 315, 320, 335, i-mbw 157 

339, 350, 362, 364 f— 360 

ng-ng 246, 285, 346, 350 ip-p 121 

ng-n 74, 274 p-6 247, 289 

ng-9 309 P-w6 285 
ng-m 199 

Identical 74, 77, 194, 239, 312, 316, 324, 358, 345 

Terminal abrasion . . . 344, 356 
Consonant identity. . . . 156, 194, 239, 252, 254, 270, 317, 323, 328, 346, 359 

Vowel identity 210, 285, 335 

Consonant mutation : 

"Vowel identit}'- 47, 242, 246, 289 

Terminal abrasion. . . 147, 306, 363, 292, 300, 309 

Terminal abrasion 121, 147, 156, 161, 193, 199, 208, 217, 228, 242, 

246, 258, 274, 278, 292, 294, 300, 306, 315, 317, 
318, 320, 321, 323, 328, 329, 340, 344, 346, 352, 
356, 363 

Frontal abrasion 251, 350 

Frontal accretion 72, 148, 239, 252, 274, 285, 301, 321, 360 

Terminal accretion 77, 148, 239, 321, 325, 335, 347, 360 



POI^YNESIAN REWCS IN MEI/ANESIA. 



89 



MALO. 



a-a 



a* 

a-o 

e-e 

e-a 
&-i 
e-o 



i-e 
i-u 

0-0 

o-i 
u-u 



u-a 
u-e 
u-i 

u-o 

l-l 





Polynesian 


6i 




Quality 


65 


a a, i, 






e e, a, i, o o o, 


i 




i i, e, u 


U u, a, e, i, 




I I, r 






ng ng, n, mo n n 
h ^ 


m m, t 




s S 







k k. 



9, ■v, 



121, 124, 
203, 207, 
252, 254, 
292, 293, 
309, 312, 

324, 335, 
346, 347, 
208 

121, 203 
124, 190, 

354 

47, 121 
208, 290, 
247 

47, 193, 
270, 290, 

346 

297, 302, 
305, 362 

147, 206, 
336, 353, 
353 

148, 194, 
289, 292, 

343, 344, 
320 

359 

247, 30 X 
266 

228, 252, 
312, 313, 



147, 148, 
217, 218, 
258, 266, 
300, 301, 
313, 316, 
337, 338, 
352, 356 



193, 199, 
228, 239, 
270, 290, 
302, 308, 
318, 320, 
339, 340, 



297, 3ir, 318, 338, 



347 

194, 206, 

305, 312, 

308, 319 

252, 285, 
356, 362 

228, 239, 

306, 316, 
358, 359 



289, 297, 
316, 320, 



254, 266, 
313, 321, 



309, 311, 

258, 270, 
321, 335, 



309, 311, 
339, 362 



Identical 217, 228, 239, 252, 258, 

270,302,306,321,337, 
309,311-312,313,316, 
318,324,336,343,344, 
346, 347, 356 

Consonant identity. 2 03, 266, 302, 320, 353, 
358, 359 

Vowel identity .... 190 



t t, d, 
l-r 



V u 

f V, 

P b, 



b, u 

V, bu 

308, 335, 



121, 194, 203, 305, 

336, 354, 358, 359 
ng-ng 285, 309, 336, 346 
ng-n 308 
ng-TOo 199 
k-k 258, 297, 301, 302, 338, 353 

^-9 193 

k-v 194 

•<— 193, 305, 306 

n-n 147, 266, 290, 292, 321 

h-s 47, 206 

S-,9 203, 239, 252, 337, 338, 339, 

340, 344, 346, 352 
U 47, 148, 199, 217, 247, 258, 

266, 270, 302, 306, 318, 324, 

346, 347, 352, 356, 358, 359 
t-d 208 
t-s 207, 293 
m-m 124, 217, 258, 266, 312, 313, 

316, 318, 319, 320, 324, 340 
m-t 254 
v-?( 121 
f-v 147, 193, 208, 254, 290, 292, 

293 

f-6 148 
f-u 206 
p-b 121, 190, 207, 218, 247, 285, 

289 
p-bti 124 
p-v 190 



Consonant mutation: 

Vowel identity. . 147, 193, 199, 292, 218, 

254,335,354 
Terminal abr . . .285 
Terminal abrasion. 207, 352 
Frontal abrasion. .193, 306 
Frontal accretion. . 148, 203, 208, 293, 340 
Terminal accretion. 194, 337, 316, 319, 335, 
337 



90 THE POLYN]eSIAN WANDERINGS. 



MARINA. 

Polynesian 31 
Quality 89 

a a, e 
Q e, a 00 

\ i u u 

I /, r 
ng ng n n, I, — m m, n 

h s 
s 

V p, t 

f V 

^ g t t, s P p, V 

a-a 147, 193, 214, 250, 278, 284, kg 193, 214, 250, 301, 306, 357 

292, 301, 309, 312, 317, 318, n-n 147, 292, 317, 328, 343 

324, 328, 335, 350, 352, 356 n-l 321 

a-g 291 n — 321 

e-e 311, 318 hs 278, 352 

?-? 272 t-t 306, 318, 324, 343, 352, 356, 

1-* 193, 285, 291, 312, 313, 350, 357, 358 

352 t-s 350 

0-0 285, 309, 311, 336, 356, 357 v-t 318, 321, 328 

u-u 212, 272, 278, 284, 292, 301, mm 312, 313, 317, 324 

306, 317, 321, 328, 335, 343, mn 291 

358 \-p 291 

1-/ 212, 284, 309, 311, 312, 313, f-v 147, 193, 212, 214, 272, 292, 

350 360 

I-*- 335, 336, 358 P'p 285 

ng-ng 285, 309, 336, 350 p-v 250, 284 

Identical 285, 309, 3", 31S, 328, 335, 336, 343, 356, 358 

Consonant identity. . . .272 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 193, 214, 278, 284, 292, 301, 306, 312, 313, 317, 

324, 350, 352 

Terminal abrasion. . . 147, 212, 357 

Terminal abrasion 147, 212, 306, 357 

Terminal accretion 328, 336, 358 



POI.YNESIAN REI.ICS IN MEI.ANESIA. 



91 



MATUPIT. 

PoLVNESIAN II 

Quality 63 

a a, e 
e o 0, a, u 

i i u u 

1 r 
ng ng n n mm 

h 
s 

V 

f w, p 
k— t t p b 

a-a 147, 214, 287, 320, 346, 352 ng-ng 284, 346 

a-e 300 k — 300 

i-i 300, 346 n-n 147 

0-0 244 U 74, 346, 352, 358 

o-a 147, 287 mm 320 

o-u 285 f-w 147, 214 

U-tt 287, 320, 358 f-p 287 

1-r 244, 287, 320 p-6 244, 285 

Identical 320, 348 

Vowel identity 300 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 147, 214 

Terminal abrasion. . .244, 285 

Terminal abrasion 147, 244, 285, 352 

Frontal abrasion 74 

Terminal accretion .... 300, 320 

MELE. 



a-a 

0-0 



147 
147 



n-n 

f-/ 



147 
147 



92 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



MERLAV. 

Polynesian 40 
Quality 77 

a. a, e, 
e e, a 00 

I i, u u u, a, i 

1 I, r, t, nd, ng 
ng ng n n, ng m m, mw 

h s 
s ^ 

V V, mh 
i V, w 
k k, g, w t t, m P b, mh, v 

a-a 123, 147, 193, 197, 207, 214, ng-ng 154, 197, 309 
217, 239, 268, 307, 309, 313, k-k 301 
316, 317, 318, 322, 324, 328, kg 149, 151, 193, 251, 300, 338, 

337, 338, 339 357 

a-e 291, 301, 324 k-w 306 

a-o 335 n-n 147, 317, 328 

e-e 151, 190, 210, 318, 338 n-ng 342 

e-a 122 h-^ 206, 338, 339 

i-i 149, 154, 193, 291, 300, 312, s-^ 239, 251, 337, 342 

313, 342 t-t 207, 210, 268, 289, 306, 318, 

i-u 206 324, 357, 358 

0-0 147, 206, 357 t-m 217 

uu 207, 239, 284, 289, 306, 316, mm 217, 313, 316, 317, 318, 322, 

328, 358 324, 328 

u-a 151 m-mw 312 

u-i 301, 335 v-t; 307 

1-/ 123, 154, 197, 284, 289, 307, \-mb 291 

309, 312, 316, 313, 329 f-v 122, 147, 193, 210, 214 

l-r 149, 268, 322, 358 f-w 206, 360 

U 335 p-fe 190 

l-nd 335 p-mb 151, 207, 289 

l-ng 123 p-v 284 

Identical 239, 313, 316, 318, 324, 337, 358 

Terminal abrasion. . .154, 197, 307, 309, 312, 317, 328 

Consonant identity. . . .268, 301 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 147, 193, 207, 214, 289, 338 

Terminal abrasion. . .149, 190, 210, 284, 300, 306, 339, 342, 357 

Terminal abrasion 123, 149, 151, 154, 190, 193, 197, 210, 217, 268, 

284, 300, 306, 307, 312, 317, 328, 339, 342 

Frontal accretion 149, 197, 301, 339 

Terminal accretion. . . . 122, 149, 312, 324, 337 



POLYNESIAN REUCS IN MElyANESIA. 93 



MOAN US. 

Polynesian 23 
Quality 83 

a a, e, i 

e i 00 

I i, u u u 

1 / 

ng ng, n n n, nj mm 

h s 

s s 

V u 

f p, mb, t, — 
k k, — t t, r, ndr p p, mb, v 

a-a 74, 126, 239, 291, 294, 308, n-n 290, 317, 330 

312, 317, 324, 328, 335, 345, n-nj 328 

350, 352, 360 h-s 352 

a-e 215, 290 s-j 239 

a-* 350 t-t 74, 126, 294, 305, 324, 345 

Q-i 190 t-r 329 

i-i 215, 290, 291, 305, 312, 330, t-ndr 350, 352 

350 m-m 312, 317, 324, 328 

>-«* 305 \-u 291 

0-0 126, 285 f-p 290, 294 

U-u 126, 239, 284, 317, 329, 330, f-mb 329, 360 

335, 360 f-^ 215 

ng-ng 285, 308, 350 f— 290 

ng-w 74 p-p 190, 285 

k-k 305 p-w6 284 

k— 143 p-^; 285, 290 
1-/ 126, 284, 305, 308, 312, 335, 

350 

Identical 126, 239, 285, 312, 317, 324, 330, 335, 345 

Terminal abrasion ... 74, 308 
Consonant identity. ... 190 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 291, 350, 352, 360 

Terminal abrasion . . . 284, 294, 352 

Terminal abrasion 74, 284, 285, 290, 294, 308, 328, 352 

Frontal accretion 190, 239 

Terminal accretion. . . .305, 317, 335 



94 



THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



MOSIN. 

Polynesian 27 
Quality 62 

a a, e, i, o, ti 
e e o o, e 

\ i, e u tt, o 

1 /, r, n, ng 

ng ng n n m m, mw 

h ^ 

s j- 

V w 

f V, w 

k ^r, ng, w t t, m p ?« 

a-a 123, 147, 214, 217, 239, 309, 1-n 335 

317, 318, 328, 339, 357 ng-ng 154, 309, 336 

a-e 193, 324 \<i-g 193, 251, 300, 357 

a-* 307 \i.-ng 301 

a-o 316 k-w 306 

a-tt 272 n-w 147, 317, 328 

e-e 122 h-,y 339 

i-i 193, 312 s-^ 239, 251 

i-e 154, 300 t-t 306, 318, 324, 343, 356, 357 

0-0 307, 336, 356, 357 t-TO 217 

o-e 123 m-w 217, 316, 317, 318, 324, 328 

u-M 272, 306, 316, 343 m-mw 312 

u-o 284 v-w 307 

1-/ 123, 154, 284, 307, 309, 312, f-v 122, 147, 193, 214 

316, 339 f-w 272 

l-r 336 p-it; 284 

l-ng 123 

Identical : 

Terminal abrasion. . .239, 309, 312, 317, 318, 328, 336, 356 
Consonant identity. . . .154, 316, 324 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 214, 339 

Terminal abrasion. . . 147, 193, 306, 343 

Terminal abrasion. . . . .147, 193, 214, 217, 239, 284, 300, 306, 309, 312, 
317, 318, 328, 336, 339, 343, 356 

Frontal accretion 272, 339 

Terminal accretion 122, 154, 272, 301, 336, 339 



POI<YNESIAN REI/ICS IN M^I^ANESIA. 



95 



MOTLAV. 



Polynesian 42 
Quality 50 



a a, e, i, 0, it 
e e, a o o, e 

\ i, e u u, i, 

I /, r, ng 
ng ng, n n n, ng, I m tn, mw 

h h 
S h 

V mb, w 
f V, w 
k g, ng t t, nd, m p h, w, kmbw 

a-<2 123, 147, 169, 214, 217, 239, k-g 169, 193, 251, 258, 300,306 

318, 324, 339 k-ng 301 

a-e 258, 309, 317, 322, 328, 337, n-n 147, 169, 290, 292, 317, 321, 

346, 350 328, 351 

a-i 307 n-ng 151 

a-o 290, 307 n-l 259 

a-M 316 h-h 339 

e-e 151, 190 s-h 169, 239, 251, 337, 351 

e-a 122 t-^ 258, 306, 318, 324, 346, 356 

i-i 154, 169, 290, 321 t-m 217 

i-e 193, 259, 300, 312 t-nd 350 

0-0 147, 259, 285, 336, 356 m-w 217, 258, 316, 317, 318, 322, 

O-e 123 324, 328 

u-u 316 m-mw 312 

u-i 306, 351 v-7»6 291 

u-o 239, 284, 292 \-w 307 

1-^ 123, 154, 284, 307, 309, 312, f-V 122, 147, 193, 214, 290, 292 

316, 339, 350 f-w 259, 360 

1-r 322, 335, 336 p-b 190 

I-»»i^ 123 p-w 284 

ng-ng 154, 309, 336, 346, 350 p-kmbwi^i, 285 
ng-7z 285 

Identical 214, 324 

Terminal abrasion. . . 154, 318, 321, 336, 339, 356 *^ 

Consonant identity. .. .316, 317, 328, 346 
Consonant mutation: 

Vowel identity 122, 147, 169, 259, 285 

Terminal abrasion. . . 190, 217, 258, 272 

Terminal abrasion 151, 154, 190, 217, 258, 272, 300, 306, 309, 312, 

317, 318, 328, 339, 346, 351 

Frontal abrasion 15I1 35i 

Frontal accretion 147, 193, 290, 301, 312, 339 

Terminal accretion 122, 147, 336, 350 



96 



THE POI.YNBSIAN WANDERINGS. 



MOTA. 



Polynesian 

QuAIvlTY 



123 
92 



a a, e, t, u 
e e, a, i, oi o 0, a, i, ai 
1 i, a, e, 0, u u u, a, e, i, 0, v 

1 /, r, ng, n 
ng ng, g, n, vi n n, ng, I mm, mw 

h ^ 
s s 

V V, p, w, u 

f V, IV, t 

k g, ng, w t t, s, r p p, 'v, kpw 



SL-a 


75, 123, 147, 152, 


156, 


160, 


u-u 


167, 207, 212, 


216, 


228, 


239, 




169, 189, 192, 193, 


197, 


198. 




240, 247, 258, 


262, 


270, 


283, 




199, 203, 207, 209, 


213, 


214, 




284, 286, 287, 


289, 


292, 


294, 




215, 216, 217, 228, 


230, 


239, 




298, 306, 316, 


317, 


320, 


325, 




240, 250, 252, 253, 


254, 


258, 




326, 328, 335, 


343, 


351, 


358, 




262, 263, 267, 268, 


270, 


274, 




368 










276, 279, 283, 284, 


287, 


290, 


u-a 


151 










292, 294, 295, 300, 


301, 


302, 


U-e 


301 










307, 309, 310, 312, 


313, 


316, 


u-i 


156, 359 










317, 318, 320, 322, 


323, 


324, 


no 


360 










328, 335, 337, 33^, 


339, 


340, 


n-v 


295 










342, 344, 346, 347, 


348, 


351, 


U 


75, 123, 153, 


154, 


161, 


189, 




352, 356, 357, 360, 


364 






197, 203, 212, 


228, 


252, 


274, 


a-e 


291 








284, 289, 295, 


297, 


307, 


309, 


a-i 


167 








310, 312, 313, 


316, 


339, 


348, 


a-u 


167 








362 








Q-e 


151, 152, 153, 189, 


190, 


257, 


\-r 


152, 160, 192, 


205, 


241, 


243, 




276, 290, 318, 338, 


347, 


363 




248, 257, 262, 


310, 


322, 


331, 


e-a 


47, 122, 240, .272 








336, 341, 355, 


358, 


359, 


364 


e-* 


203, 297 






\-n 


335 








e-oi 


247 






l-ng 


123 








i-i 


47, ^54, 169, 193, 
223, 227, 241, 243, 


206, 

254, 


215, 
259, 


ng-ng 


167, 197, 209, 
298, 309, 346 


230, 


248, 


274, 




270, 290, 291, 295, 


300, 


3^2, 


ng-g 


154, 336 










313, 342, 346, 348, 


355 




ng-m 


199 








\-a 


341 






ng-n 


285, 343 








i-e 


319 






kg 


151, 156, 169, 


193, 


196, 


214, 


i-o 


341 








227, 250, 251, 


297, 


300, 


302, 


i-u 


362 








323- 353, 357 








0-0 


75, 147, 153. 160, 


192, 


196, 


k-ng 


301 










197, 206, 248, 252, 


259, 


263, 


k-w 


306 










267, 285, 309, 325, 


336, 


353- 


n-n 


147, 156, 169, 


227, 


254, 


286, 




355, 356, 357, 362, 


363 






290, 292, 317, 


321, 


328, 


351 


o-a 


205, 248, 257, 287, 


331 




n-ng 


342 








o-i 


353 






n-l 


259 








o-ai 


123 

















POI^YNESIAN REUCS IN MEI.ANESIA. 97 

MOTA— Continued. 
h-s 47, 206, 215, 331, 339, 340, m-mw 312, 313 

363, 352 y-v 307 

s-s 169, 198, 203, 205, 239, 251, \-p 291 

252, 263, 323, 338, 341, 342, y-w 189, 206, 310 

344, 351, 205 \-u 310 

t-t 47, 75, 160, 196, 199, 208, f-v 122, 147, 152, 193, 213, 214, 

209, 217, 227, 247, 258, 267, 215, 223, 243, 254, 272, 283, 

268, 270, 286, 289, 294, 302, 290, 292, 294 

306, 318, 324, 325, 343, 346, f-w 360, 363, 259, 286, 287 

347, 348, 353, 355, 356, 357, U 290 

358, 359, 207 P-P 151, 190, 192, 207, 247, 279, 
t-s 298 289 

t-r 276 p-v 250, 284 

n»-w 75, 156, 198, 217, 230, 253, p-kpw 241, 285 

254, 257, 258, 316, 3^7, 318, 

319, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 

328, 340 

Identical 152, 153, 154, 160, 167, 190, 192, 197, 198, 207, 

209, 212, 216, 217, 228, 230, 239, 240, 252, 253, 
258, 262, 263, 267, 268, 270, 279, 289, 307, 309, 
316, 317, 318, 320, 324, 325, 328, 336, 337, 344, 

346, 347, 348, 351, 355, 356, 358, 364 
Terminal abrasion. . . 75, 163, 203, 274, 327, 343 
Consonant identity. . . .205, 247, 248, 257, 272, 319, 321, 331, 341, 362 

Vowel identity 259, 276, 298 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 47, 147, 156, 169, 189, 193, 199, 206, 208, 213, 

214, 215, 227, 241, 243, 250, 283, 284, 285, 286, 
287, 290, 292, 294, 295, 300, 306, 312, 313, 336, 

338, 339, 340, 342, 363 
Terminal abrasion. . . 154, 196, 223, 254, 294, 302, 306, 310, 323, 343, 
352, 358 
Terminal abrasion 75, 151, 154, 196, 203, 223, 241, 243, 254, 272, 

294, 297, 321, 323, 343, 346, 352, 358, 359 

Frontal accretion 189, 190, 279, 301, 310, 312, 331 

Terminal accretion 189, 190, 279, 301, 310, 312, 331 



98 THE POI.YNKSIAN WANDERINGS. 



MOTU. 

Polynesian 56 

Quality 85 

a a 
e e, a, i, 00 o, u, ia 
i i, e, o, u, ei u u, a, 

I I. r, - 
ng n, — n w mm 

h d 
s h, d 

V V 

f V, h 

k k, g., — , m t t p p, b 

a-a 125, 208, 214, 217, 268, 271, 1-/ 243, 268, 309, 310, 335, 339, 

292. 293, 301, 309, 310, 312, 354, 362 

3i3» 317, 318, 328, 334, 335, l-r 182,205,241,248,272,288,304, 

339. 342, 346, 349. 350, 351, 327,331,332,334,359,364 

352, 360, 364 I— 312, 313, 350 

e-g 190, 208, 318, 354, 363 ng— 285, 309, 332, 346, 350 

e-a 47, 272 ng-n 125 

e-* 190 k-k 249 

e-o 249 k-g 299 

i-i 47, 241, 243, 249, 268, 304, k-m 304 

312, 313, 321, 327, 330, 342, k— 301, 306 

346, 350, 352 n-w 271, 292, 317, 321, 328, 330, 

»-« 273 334, 342, 343, 351 

i-o 288 h-rf 47, 339, 352, 363 

i-u 362 s-^ 182, 205 

i-ei 319 s-d 298, 342, 351 

0-0 201, 285, 309, 331, 349, 362, t-t 47, 125, 168, 208, 217, 249, 

363 268, 293, 306, 318, 343, 346, 

o-« 205 349, 352, 358, 359 

o-m 331 mm 76, 217, 312, 313, 317, 318, 

u-u 76, 125, 168, 182, 271, 272, 319, 326, 327, 328 

273, 288, 292, 298, 299, 301, y-v 310 

306, 317, 321, 326, 327, 330, f'h 201, 208, 243, 271, 272, 273, 

332, 334, 335, 343, 35i, 358, 288, 292, 360, 363 

__ 359. j^o, 364 f-v 214, 293 

u-o 76 p-6 125, 190, 241, 285 

u-o 248, 328 p-p 279 

Identical 168, 214, 217, 268, 271, 279, 301, 306, 309, 317, 

318, 321, 326, 327, 330, 334, 335, 343, 346, 349, 

354, 359, 364 
Consonant identity. ... 76, 249, 328, 331, 362 

Vowel identity 304, 346 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 47, 125, 182, 201, 208, 241, 243, 272, 273, 285, 

292, 293, 298, 299, 339, 342, 352, 360, 363 

Frontal abrasion 248, 301, 306, 310, 312, 313, 332 

Frontal accretion 190, 208, 241, 243, 339, 351 

Terminal accretion 208, 299, 321, 343, 359 



POIyYNESIAN R^I^ICS IN M^IvANESIA. 



99 



MURRAY ISLAND. 



a-a 


275 


l-r 


305 


au-ai 


301 


k-k 


275 


U-tt 


305 


k-g 


301, 305 




NATALAVA. 




a-a 


335, 350 


l-l 


350 


a-u 


350 


l-r 


335 


i-i 


350 


ng-nd 


350 


u-u 


335 


t-k 


350 



NENGONE. 

Polynesian i i 
Quality 45 

a a, e 
e e 00 

i i, e u u, e, 

1 /, r, n 
ng ng n n m 

h 
s s 

V w 
i w, — 
k k, — it p p 

a-a 214, 274, 361 l-n 309 

a-e 300, 309, 322 ng-ng 274, 309 

e-e 122 k-k 361 

i-i 300 k — 300, 306 

i-e 245 n-n 330 

0-0 309 s-j 245 

U-W 330, 361 t-t 306 

Xl-e 306 \-w 291 

U-o 245, 306 f-tt; 245 

1-/ 274 f — 122, 214 

•-'' 335 p-p 361 

Identical 361 

Consonant identity .... 306, 335 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 309, 330 

Terminal abrasion 274 

Frontal abrasion 122, 214, 306 

Frontal accretion 274 



100 



THie POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



NEW GEORGIA. 

Polynesian i6 
Quality 63 

a. a, 0, u 
e e 00 

1 i, e, o u u, o 

1 /, r 
ng ng n m mm 

h 
s s 

V 

f 

k k, h t t, s, m p p, b 

a-a 217, 300, 312, 313, 324, 350, l-r 192, 305 

351, 361 ng-ng 285, 298, 350 

a-o 361 k-k 305, 361 

a-u 192 k-h 300, 301 

e-e 190 n-m 351 

i-i 149, 285, 300, 312, 313, 350, s-^ 351 

351 t-t 324, 350 

i-e 305 t-s 298 

«-'' 305 t-m 217 

0-0 192, 285 m-m 217, 312, 313, 324 

u-u 298, 351 p-p 190, 192, 361 

u-o 361 p-6 285 

1-/ 312, 313, 350 

Identical 190, 312, 313, 324 

Consonant identity. . . . 192, 305, 350 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 217, 285, 300 

Frontal accretion 351 

Terminal accretion 149, 190, 300, 351 



POI<YNBSIAN REUCS IN MEI.ANESIA. 101 



NGGAO. 

Polynesian i8 
QuAWTY 77 

a a 

e a o 0, i 

i i, e, u \x u 

I I, r, k 

ng ng n n, m mm 

h h 

s s, h 

V 

f /, ng, kr 
k k, g t t p mb 

a-a 214, 215, 217, 239, 309, 312, k-k 251 

313. 324, 346, 352 kg 305 

e-a 272 n-n 201 

i-i 215, 285, 305, 313. 346, 351, n-m 351 

352 h-h 215 

i-e 298, 313 s-j 251, 351 

i-u 305 s-h 239, 298 

0-0 201, 285, 309, 336 t-t 324 

o-i 336 mm 217, 312, 313, 324 

U-u 239, 272, 298, 351 f-/ 214, 272 

l-l 305, 309, 312 f-ng 215 

l-r 272 f-kr 201 

I-fe 313 - p-mb 285 

ng-w^ 285, 309 

Identical 214, 251, 312, 324, 346, 351 

Consonant identity. . . .272, 309, 336 

Vowel identity 201, 239, 309 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 215, 285 

Frontal abrasion 217 

Frontal accretion 239, 272, 298, 309 

Terminal accretion .... 324 



102 



THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



NGGELA. 

Polynesian 6i 
Quality 8o 

a a, at, o, u 
e e, i o 

i i \x u 

1 /, r 
ng »17. 9 n n, ng, I m m, v, r 

h h 
S ,$•, h 

V V 

f V, mb 
k k, g t t, nd, k p 6, mb, v 

a-a 45, 147, 152, 197, 198, 203, k-fe 149, 251 

207, 208, 213, 214, 217, 239, kg 258, 297, 300, 301, 305, 306, 

258, 272, 278, 284, 300, 309, 323, 338 

312, 313, 315, 316, 317, 318, nn 290, 292, 296, 317, 321, 328, 

322, 323, 324, 328, 332, 338, 330, 342 

339, 342, 346, 352, 360 n-ng 351 

a-ai 290 n-l 259 

a-o 45 h-/i 278, 323, 338, 339, 352 

a-M 350 s-j 45, 203, 351 

e-e 122, 208, 290, 297, 318, 338 s-h 198, 239, 251, 298, 342, 346 

e-i 152, 203 t-t 207, 208, 217, 258, 294, 306, 

i-i 149, 155, 259, 273, 285, 290, 318, 324, 346, 352, 358 

297, 298, 300, 305, 312, 313, t-nd 329 

321, 323, 327, 329, 330, 332, t-k 350 

342, 346, 350, 352 mm 198, 217, 258, 312, 313, 315, 

0-0 197, 259, 285, 296, 309, 357 316, 317, 318, 322, 324, 327, 

u-M 155, 207, 239, 258, 272, 273, 328 

278, 284, 296, 298, 306, 316, m-v 323 

317, 321, 327, 328, 329, 330, m-r 322 

332, 351, 358, 360 v-t; 152 

1-/ 152, 155, 197, 284, 297, 305, f-v 122, 147, 208, 213, 214, 259, 

309, 312, 313, 315, 316, 322, 272, 273, 290, 294, 296, 329, 

339, 350 360 

l-r 203, 272, 327, 332, 358 f-mb 292 

ng-ng 213, 285, 309, 332, 346 p-6 45, 190 

ng-^ 197 p-mb 207, 285 

p-v 284 

Identical 152, 155, 214, 217, 309, 312, 313, 317, 318, 321, 

324, 327, 328, 330, 332, 335, 339, 346, 352 

Consonant identity. . . .203, 272, 315 

Vowel identity 259, 273, 316 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 122, 197, 198, 207, 208, 213, 239, 251, 258, 259, 

273, 278, 284, 285, 290, 294, 296, 297, 298, 300, 
306, 329, 338, 342, 351, 360 

Terminal abrasion 147, 350 

Frontal abrasion 332 

Frontal accretion 190, 197, 273, 305 

Terminal accretion 339 



POIvYNESIAN REWCS IN MKlyANESIA. 103 



NGUNA. 

Polynesian i6 
Quality 93 

a a 
e e o 0, u 

\ i, a, u \x u 

I /, r 
ng ng, n n » m m 

h ^ 
s 

V 

i f, V, w 
\i k it p 

a-a 74, 75, 214, 261, 294, 301, ng-ng 336, 346, 350 

317, 318, 338, 346, 350 ng-n 74 

e-e 261, 318, 338 k-fe 214, 301, 338 

i-* 206, 346, 350 n-w 317, 321 

\-a 321 h-^ 206, 338 

in 74 U 74, 75, 294, 308, 346, 350 

0-0 206, 336 m-m 75, 317, 318 

o-u 75 f-/ 294 

u-M 159, 294, 301, 317, 321 i-v 214 

I-^ 75, 350 i-iv 206 

I-r 159, 261, 336 

Identical 159, 261, 294, 301, 317, 318, 336, 346, 350 

Consonant identity. ... 74, 75, 321 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 206, 214, 338 

Frontal accretion 301, 321 



104 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



NIFILOIvE. 

Polynesian 13 
Quality 66 

a a, e, 0, u 
e 00 

\ i, a U u, i, 

I /, n 
ng n w mm 

h 
s s 

V 

f V, p,^w, n 
k k it P "^ 

a-a 214, 217, 239, 284, 360 \-n 313 

a-o 291, 357 k-fe 149 

a-e 313 n-n 328, 330 

a-w 217 s-i' 239 

ii 149, 291, 313 t-< 217 

i-a 149 ni-w 217, 313, 328 

0-0 357 f-x; 294 

U-« 212, 330, 360 f-p 284 

u-i 239 f-w 214, 291 

no 284 f-w 360 

\-l 149, 212, 284 

Identical 328 

Consonant identity. . . . 149, 212, 217, 239, 330 

Vowel identity 360 

Consonant mutation : 
Vowel identity 214 

Terminal abrasion 294 

Frontal abrasion 212 

Frontal accretion 239 

Terminal accretion 217, 284 



POIvYNESIAN REWCS IN MEI^ANESIA. 105 



NORBARBAR. 

PoivYNESIAN 37 
Quality 54 

a a, e, i, 0, u 
e e o 0, a, e, i 

\ i, e u u, i, 

I /, r, nd 
ng ng, n n « mm 

h h 
s s, h 

y p, w 

f V, w 

k g, — , w it, nd, m p p, b, mb, kmbw 

a-a 147, 217, 239, 309, 317, 318, k-^ 193. 251, 301, 338 

338 k— 300 

a-e 193, 300, 312, 328, 337, 350 k-w 306 

a-i 350 n-« 147, 292, 317, 328, 350 

a-o 75, 292, 307, 316 h-h 331, 338 

a-M 307 s-^ 239, 251, 337 

e-e 122, 190 s-h 239 

i-i 300, 312 t-^ 75, 306, 318, 324, 356, 358 

i-e 193 t-nd 350 

0-0 75. 285, 336, 356, 357 t-m 217 

0-a 147 mm 75, 217, 312, 316, 317, 318, 

o-e 331 324, 328 

O-i 331 \-p 291 

U-tt 212, 239, 289, 306, 316 \-W 307 

U-0 272 f-V 122, 147, 193, 214, 292 

U-* 292, 358 f-W 212, 360 

1-Z 75, 289, 307, 309, 312, 316 p-p 190 

ir 331, 336 p-6 190 

l-nd 335 p-mb 289 

ng-»^ 309, 336, 350 p-kmbw 285 

ng-w 285 

Identical 324 

Terminal abrasion. . .309, 317, 318, 336, 356 
Consonant identity. ... 75, 316, 328, 331, 337, 358 

Vowel identity 217 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 122, 212 

Terminal abrasion . . . 147, 190, 289, 306, 338 

Terminal abrasion 147, 190, 193, 214, 217, 239, 289, 306, 309, 317, 

318, 328, 336, 338, 356, 357 

Frontal abrasion 239 

Frontal accretion 301, 312 

Terminal accretion 122, 212, 307, 331, 336, 350 



106 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



OMBA. 

Polynesian 40 
Quality 75 

a a, e, u 
e e 00 

i i u u, e, V 

1 /, r 

ng ng, n vl n mm 

h h 

s h 

\ V, w 

i V, w 
k g, w i t, m P b, mb 

a-a 74, 147, 152, 169, 207, 214, ng-ng 285, 309, 336, 346 

217, 239, 254, 290, 291, 292, ng-n 74 

307, 309, 317, 318, 324, 338, k-g 169, 214, 300, 301, 338 

346, 351. 356 k-w 306 

a-e 278, 284, 292, 295, 300, 312, n-n 74, 147, 169, 254, 290, 292, 

313 317 

a-u 307 h-h 169, 206, 278, 338, 352 

e-e 122, 152, 153, 190, 290, 318, s-h 239 

338 U 74, 207, 306, 318, 346, 352, 

i-i 74, 169, 206, 254, 285, 290, 356, 358 

291. 295, 300, 312, 313, 346, t-m 217 

352 m-w 217, 254, 312, 313, 317, 318 

0-0 153, 206, 285, 336, 356 \-v 152 

U-U 212, 239, 278, 284, 292, 306, \-W 291, 307 

317, 358 f-V 122, 147, 206, 212, 214, 254, 

u-e 207 284, 290, 292 

u-i; 295 f-w 360 

1-/ 153, 212, 284, 295, 307, 309, P-& 190 

312, 313 p-mb 207, 285 
l-r 152, 335, 336 

Identical 74, 152, 153, 309, 317, 318, 335, 336, 346, 352, 

356, 358 
Terminal abrasion . . . 324 
Consonant identity. . . .278, 312, 313 

Vowel identity 217 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 169, 190, 206, 214, 239, 254, 285, 290, 291, 306, 

338 
Terminal abrasion . . .147 

Terminal abrasion 147, 324, 336 

Terminal accretion 212, 313, 335, 336 



POI^YNBSIAN REUCS IN MEI/ANESIA. 107 

PAAMA. 

a-a 252, 274 u-i 329 s-i' 252 

a-e 312 1-/ 274, 312 t-s 329 

i-i 312, 329 I— 252 f-h 329 

o-« 252 ng-ng 274 

PAK. 

Polynesian 31 

Quality 45 

a a, e, o, ti 
e e, i, u o 0, e 
I i, e u u, 

I /, r, ng, t 
ng ng, n n n mm 

h s 
s i- 

V w 
f V 

k g, ng, w it, — , m p p 

a-a 123, 147, 217, 250, 309, 318, \-t 335 

339, 357 ng-ng 309 

a-e 214, 317, 324, 328, 337, 350 ng-TO 350 

a-o 239, 292, 307 kg 251, 300, 301, 357 

a-u 250, 316 k-ng 301 

e-e 122, 190 k-w 306 

e-i 203 n-fi 292, 317, 328 

e-u 272 h-^ 339 

•-*" 300 s-i- 203, 239, 251, 337 

i-e 312 U 350, 356 

0-0 356, 357 t— 270, 318, 324, 357 

o-e 123 t-m 217 

u-w 270, 272, 306, 316 mm 217, 312, 316, 317, 318, 324, 

u-o 292 328 

1-/ 123, 307, 309, 312, 316, 339, \-w 307 

350 f-v 122, 147, 214, 292 

l-r 203 p-p 190 

l-ng 123 

Identical 

Terminal abrasion. . . 190, 309 

Consonant identity 203, 239, 312, 316, 317, 328, 337 

Vowel identity 324 

Consonant mutation: 

Vowel identity 122, 214 

Terminal abrasion . . , 300, 339 

Terminal abrasion 147, 190, 203, 214, 217, 239, 292, 300, 306, 309, 

312, 317, 318, 328, 339, 356 

Frontal abrasion 270 

Frontal accretion 301, 312, 339 

Terminal accretion 122, 350, 324, 335, 350 



108 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

PALA. 

Polynesian 54 
Quality 80 

a a, e 
Q e, a, 00, a, e, u 
i i, e, u u u, i, h 

\ I, r, n 
ng ng, n n n, ng mm 

h s 
s s 

\ b, u 
i h, u, s 
k k, g, — t t, d P b, p 

a-a 74, 147, 156, 214, 216, 217, ng-w 151 

253, 290, 294, 307, 312, 313, k-k 196, 211 

317, 318, 324, 350 kg 

a-e 215, 295, 352 k— 151, 156 

e-e 47, 151, 203 n-n 147, 156, 201, 290, 317, 343 

e-a 47, 122, 363 n-ng 259 

e-o 247 hs 47, 215, 352, 363 

i-i 215, 259, 290, 295, 312, 313, s-^ 203, 344 

350 t-t 47, 74,125,196,211,216, 

i-e 211 217, 247, 289, 294, 318, 324, 

i-u 329 343, 350, 352, 358 

0-0 201 i-d 329 

o-a 363 mm 156, 216, 217, 253, 312, 313, 

O-e 259 317, 318, 324 

0-u 196, 285 \-b 307 

u-u 125, 151, 156, 211, 216, 273, \-u 

289, 329, 343, 344 f-/^ 122, 147, 201, 215, 214, 273, 

u-i 247 290, 294, 329 

u-h 295 f-u 363 

I-/ 203, 289, 295, 312, 313, 350 f-^ 259 

l-r 358 p-fc 125, 151, 247, 285, 289 

l-n 307 p-p 
ng-ng 285, 350 

(Note: k-^, p-p, and \-u do not appear in the material here collated, 
but each has been observed in other Polynesian loan words in Pala.) 

Identical 156, 216, 203, 313, 324, 358 

Terminal abrasion. . .289, 317, 318, 343, 344 
Consonant identity .... 2 11 
Consonant mutation : 

Terminal abrasion. . . 147, 273, 294 

Terminal abrasion 47, 74, 147, 151, 196, 201, 289, 290, 294, 317, 

318, 343, 344, 352 

Frontal accretion 74 

Terminal accretion 312 

Metathesis afi-iah, tina-etna. 



POlvYNESIAN REWCS IN MEI^AN^SIA. 



109 



RALUANA. 



a-a 


214, 


294 


0-0 


314, 


336 


U-M 


358 




1/ 


314, 


336 



l-r 358 

ng-ng 336 

t-t 294 

f-w 214, 294, 314 



Terminal abrasion 294 

Terminal accretion 314 



RETAN. 



Polynesian 14 
Quality 2 1 



a a, e, 
Q a o o, a, e 

i e u e, i 

1 /, r, ng 

ng ng n n mm, mw 

h k 

8 

V 

f V 

kg t t p 

a-a 123, 318 l-r 331, 336, 358 

a-e 193, 292 l-ng 123 

a-o 317 ng-ng 336 

e-a 122 k-g 193 

i-c 193, 312 n-n 292, 317 

0-0 336 h-h 331 

0-0 331, 357 t-t 318, 357, 358 

o-e 123 m-w 317, 318 

u-e 292 m-mw 312 

U-* 358 f-1) 122, 193, 292 

I-/ 123, 312 

Identical : 

Terminal abrasion. . .318 
Consonant mutation : 

Terminal abrasion . . . 336 

Terminal abrasion 193, 292, 317, 318, 336 

Frontal accretion 312 

Terminal accretion 122, 331, 336, 357 

Metathesis 193 

RUAVATU. 

a-a 317 l-l 313 

a-e 313 n-n 317 

i-i 313 m-m 313, 317 

u-« 317 



no 



THE POI/YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



SAA. 

Polynesian 30 
Quality 80 

a. a, e 
& e 00 

i i u u 

I I, r, n 
ng ng n n, ng mm 

h s, t 
s s 

\ w, h 
f h 
k — t — , t, k p p 

a-a 200, 214, 217, 250, 291, 292, n-n 187, 259, 292, 317, 330 

294. 307, 309, 317, 318, 338, n-ng 351 

339. 350, 352, 360 h-^ 352 

a-e 292, 300, 313, 350 h-^ 338, 339 

e-e 122, 187, 190, 318, 338 S-* 251, 298, 351 

i-i 200, 259, 273, 291, 300, 313, t-t 329 

329, 330, 350, 351, 352 t— 217, 294, 318, 350, 352, 358 

0-0 187, 259, 309 t-k 356 

u-u 200, 273, 292, 294, 298, 317, m-m 200, 217, 313, 317, 318 

329, 330, 351, 358, 360 v-w 291 

1-/ 307, 309, 339, 350 \-h 307 

l-r 200, 358 f-h 122, 214, 259, 273, 292, 294, 

In 313 329, 360 

ng-ng 309, 350 p-p 190, 250 
k— 214, 250, 251, 300, 338 

Identical 187, 190, 200, 298, 309, 317, 330, 358 

Vowel identity 214, 217, 250 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 259, 273, 291, 292, 294, 307, 318, 329, 350, 352, 

360 

Frontal abrasion 217, 250, 351, 352, 358 

Frontal accretion 298, 300 

Terminal accretion 35 1, 358 

Metathesis 351 



POIyYNESIAN REWCS IN MEI/ANESIA. Ill 



SANTO. 

Polynesian 27 
Quality 81 

a a, e, i, 
e e, i o 0, a 

i i, e, u u u 

1 /, r 

ng n, m n to, mm 

h s, — 

s s 

V 

f V, w 

k fe t t p p 

a-a 199, 216, 217, 228, 292, 300, 1-r 305, 336, 355 

312, 313, 318, 324, 356 ng-TO 285, 336, 346 

a-e 216, 253, 316, 324 ng-w 199 

a-i 217, 292 k-k 300, 302, 305 

a-o 239, 302, 346, 352 n-TO 292, 343 

e-e 47 h-s 47, 206, 278, 352 

e-i 153, 318 h— 255 

i-i 47, 206, 300, 305, 312, 346, s-^ 239 

352, 355 t-t 47, 199, 216, 217, 302, 318, 

i-e 313 324, 343, 346, 352, 355 

i-u 305 mm 216, 217, 253, 255, 312, 313, 

0-0 153, 206, 285, 336, 355, 356 316, 318, 324 

o-a 255 f-v 292 

u-u 216, 228, 239, 278, 292, 316, f-w 206 

343 P-P 285 

I-/ 153, 228, 312, 313, 316 

Identical 153, 228, 300, 312, 343, 355, 356 

Consonant identity. . . .216, 217, 239, 253, 302, 316, 318, 324 

Vowel identity 199 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 47, 206, 292, 336 

Terminal abrasion. . .278, 285 

Terminal abrasion 278, 285 

Frontal accretion 312 

Terminal accretion 153, 239, 305, 313, 324, 336 



112 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



SASAR. 



e e, 



ng ng, n 



Polynesian 


22 


QUAUTY 

a a, e, o, u 


45 


u 0, e 




u u, i, 
1 /, ng, t 

n n mm 
h 





k g, ng, 

a-o 123, 147, 217, 250, 

a-e 317, 337, 35o 

a-o 239, 292, 307, 328 

a-it 250, 316 

e-e 190 

e-tt 272 

0-0 356 

o-e 123 

n-u 272, 306, 316 

u-o 292 

U-* 343 

1 1 123, 307, 309, 316, 
\-ng 123 

•-^ 335 

ng-w^ 309 

Identical: 

Terminal abr 190, 309, 

Consonant identity . .316, 317, 

Vow'^Udentity 217, 306 

Consonant mutation : 

Terminal abr 147 



w 

309, 318 



350 



356 
328,337 



s s 



t t, 

ng-n 

k^ 

k-ng 
k-w 
n-n 

s-s 

t-t 

t-m 
t— 

m-m 

\-w 
f-v 
i-w 

v-P 



V w 

i V, w 
m, — p /> 

350 

250, 251 

301 

306 

147, 292, 317, 328 

239, 251, 337 

306, 350, 356 

217 

318 

217, 316, 317, 318, 328 

307 

147, 292 

272 

190, 250 



Terminal abrasion . 147, 190, 217, 239, 306, 
309.317,318, 328, 356 
Frontal accretion . .301 
Terminal accretion. 250, 272, 335, 350 



SAVO. 



a a 



e e, a 



o o 



1 a. 



u u 









1 ; 










ng ng 


n n 
h 

s s, z 




m m 

V V 

f 






k k, g 


t 




P P, 


a-a 


239, 


250, 316, 328, 337 


k-g 


250 




e-e 


190 




n-n 


328 




e-o 


272 




s-s 


337 




i-o 


305 




s-z 


239 




i-a 


335 




m-m 


316, 328 




0-0 


285 




\-v 


272 




u-u 


239, 


272, 316, 328 


V-P 


285 




l-l 


272, 


316 


p-i; 


250 




ng-ng 


285 




p-6 


190 




kk 


305 











V, b 



POI.YNESIAN REUCS IN MEI.ANESIA. 113 

SESAKE. 

Polynesian 57 

Quality 76 

a. a, 0, u 
e e 00 

{ i, e u u, a, 

1 /, r, nd 

ng ng n n mm 

h s, V 

s s 

\ V, u 
f f, V, p, w 
k k, g, IV t nd, t p p, b, mb, v 

a-a 45, 147, 151, 162, 169, 200, ng-ng 151, 209, 246, 274, 285, 336, 

209, 214, 215, 217, 239, 246, 350 

258, 260, 270, 272, 274, 278, k-fe 151, 194, 214, 251, 258, 300, 

291, 292, 294, 300, 301, 307, 301, 338, 361 

310, 312, 317, 318, 322, 324, kg 169 

335, 337, 338, 339, 342, 350, k-w 305 

352, 356 n-n 169, 296, 317, 330, 342 

a-o 203 h-s 206, 215, 278, 338, 339, 352 

Si-u 307 h-a; 169 

e-e 151, 153, 318, 338 s-^ 45, 203, 239, 251, 298, 337, 

i-i 149, 169, 194, 200, 206, 215, 342 

270, 285, 291, 298, 300, 305, t-t 162, 217, 258, 270, 294, 318, 

312, 329, 330, 342, 350, 352 324, 352, 356, 357, 358 

i-e 305 t-nd 209, 329, 350 

0-0 153, 206, 285, 296, 336, 356, mm 158, 200, 217, 257, 258, 312, 

357 317, 318, 322, 324, 343 

U-W 151, 162, 200, 2X2, 239, 246, \-V 307 

258, 270, 272, 278, 292, 294, \-u 310 

296, 298, 301, 317, 330, 335, f-/ 296 

358 f-v 147, 214, 246, 292, 294 
U-a 329 f-p 215 

u-o 194 f-w 206 

1-/ 153, 212, 257, 305, 307, 310, p-p 151 

312, 339, 350 p-6 361 

l-r 194, 200, 203, 260, 322, 335 p-mb 285 
l-nd 336 p-v 45 

Identical 151, 153, 194, 200, 212, 217, 239, 258, 270, 296, 

300, 301, 312, 317, 318, 322, 324, 330, 342, 356, 
358 
Terminal abrasion. . .357 

Consonant identity. . . .203, 239, 257, 307 

Vowel identity 158, 162, 291, 336 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 169, 206, 209, 214, 215, 246, 278, 285, 292, 294, 

338, 339, 350, 352 

Terminal abrasion 147, 274, 310, 357 

Frontal abrasion 329 

Frontal accretion 158, 162, 260, 274, 291, 298, 310, 339 

Terminal accretion 194, 239 



114 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



TANNA. 

Polynesian 37 
Quality 29 

a a, e, i 
e e, i o e, u 

i *', a, e u u, a, e, i 

1 r 

ng ng, n n n mm 

h t 

S s, r 

V u 

f f, V, k 

k k, g, y t t, s, h p p, b, m 

a-a 150, 173, 216, 218, 238, 249, ng-n 285 

256, 274, 293, 317, 322, 334, k-k 150, 194, 258, 361 

337, 352, 360 kg 306 

a-e 147, 340, 350 k-y 251 

a-i 217, 313, 340 n-n 147, 317, 321 

e-e 173, 240, 290 h-t 340 

e-i 147 s-s 251 

i-i . 150, 194, 200, 274, 312, 313, s-r 337 

319, 321, 350, 352 t-t 150, 168, 274, 306 

i-e 290 t-s 207 

i-a 319 t-h 258 

o-e 285 m-w 200, 258, 274, 317, 321, 322, 

o-u 150 340 

u-w 168, 173, 194, 216, 238, 240, \-u 291 

247, 273, 317. 321, 358 f-/ 293 

u-a 168 f-v 147, 290 

U-e 306 f-fe 273 

U-* 334 P-P 173, 361 

1-r 194, 200, 322 p-6 285 

ng-ng 274 p-m 207 

Identical 194, 274, 173, 293 

Consonant identity. . . .150, 168, 313, 319, 334, 350 
Consonant mutation : 
Vowel identity 352 

Terminal abrasion 147, 273, 306 

Frontal abrasion 321 

Frontal accretion 147, 150, 273, 291, 306, 340, 350, 358 

Terminal accretion. . . .200, 317, 321, 340 



POI.YNESIAN RELICS IN MEI.ANESIA. 115 



TANGOAN SANTO. 

a a 
e e, o 

\ i n u 

1 /, r 

ng ng n. n m n 

h s, ts 

s s 



k k, V it p 6 



V 

f h, p, th 



a-a 


147, 148, 193, 


209, 


217, 


239. 


k-v 


194 






278, 302, 312, 


316, 


338, 


340. 


n-n 


147 






346 








h-^ 


206, 278, 


338 


e-e 


338 








h-ts 


340 




e-o 


247 








s-s 


239 




i-* 


193, 194, 206, 


302, 


312, 


346 


t-t 


148, 209, 


217, 247, 302, 346, 


0-0 


147, 206 










358 




u-u 


148, 194, 239, 
358 


247, 


278, 


316, 


m-n 

i-b 


312, 316, 
193, 206 


340 


11 


312, 316 








i-p 


148 




i-r 


194, 358 








Uh 


147 




ng-ng 


209, 346 








p-b 


247 




k-k 


193, 302, 338 















UEA. 
a-a 274 ng-ng 274 

UGI. 











Polynesian 8 










Quality 75 


a-a 


214, 250, 292, 300, 317, 318 


n-l 


259 




e-e 


318 


t-t 


357 




i-i 


259, 300 


t— 


318 




0-0 


259, 357 


m-m 


317 




u-u 


292, 317 


i-v 


292 




k— 


214, 250 


f-h 


214, 


259, 292 



n-n 292, 317 p-p 250 



116 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



ULAWA. 

Polynesian 28 
Quality 77 

a a 

e e, a 00 

i i u u 

I I, r, n 

ng ng n n, ng m m 

h ^ 

s s 

V w 

f h 

k— t t,— p p 

a-o 200, 214, 217, 239, 250, 291, ng-ng 309, 343, 350 

294, 300, 309, 312, 313, 317, k— 214, 250, 251, 300, 301 

318, 324, 350, 352, 360 n-n 259, 317, 330 

e-e 190, 318 n-ng 351 

e-a 122 h-s 352 

i-i 200, 259, 291, 300, 312, 313, s-^ 239, 251, 298, 351 

329, 330, 350, 351, 352 t-t 329, 343 

0-0 259, 309 t— 217, 294, 318, 324, 350, 352 

u-u 200, 239, 294, 298, 317, 329, m-w 200, 217, 312, 313, 317, 318, 

330, 343, 351, 360 324 

^-i 309, 312, 350 V-'Zt^ 291 

l-r 200 f-h 122, 214, 259, 294, 329, 360 

V-n 313 p-p 190, 250 

Identical 190, 200, 250, 309, 312, 317, 330, 343 

Vowel identity 214, 217, 239, 294, 313, 318, 324, 350 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 259, 291, 300, 329, 360 

Frontal abrasion 217, 250, 350, 351, 352 

Frontal accretion 239, 294, 298 



VANIKORO. 



a-a 292 u-u 273, 292 
a-e 292 f-/ 292 
i-i 273 f-p 273 



POIyYNESIAN REI.ICS IN MEI.ANESIA. 



117 



VATURANGA. 

Polynesian 39 
Quality 76 

a a 

e e, a o 0, a 

i i, a, u u, o 

I I, r, k, — 

ng ng n n, I mm 

h s, h 

s s 

V 

f V, h, ng 
k k, h, ng t t, nd p b, mb, v 

A-a 123, 147, 200, 214, 215, 217, ng-ng 285, 309, 336, 346 

258, 278, 284, 294, 309, 313, kk 305, 338 

316, 317, 318, 324. 328, 338, k-ng 251, 306 

346, 352, 360 k-h 258, 301 

e-e 122, 190, 257, 318, 338 n-w 147, 201, 317, 328, 330 

e-a 272 n-l 259 

i-i 200, 206, 215, 259, 285, 298, h-^ 206, 215, 338, 352 

313. 329, 330, 346, 352 h-fe 278 

i-a 305 s-^ 251, 298 

i-o 305 ^-i 217, 258, 294, 306, 318, 324, 

0-0 123, 147, 201, 206, 259, 285, 346, 352, 358 

309, 336 t-nd 329 

o-a 257 mm 200, 217, 258, 313, 316, 317, 

u-u 200, 258, 272, 278, 284, 294, 318, 324, 328 

298, 306, 316, 317, 328, 329, f-v 122, 147, 206, 214, 259, 272, 

330, 358, 360 294, 329 

u-o 306 f-h 201 

l-l 123, 284, 309, 316 f-ng 215 

l-r 200, 272, 305, 335, 336 p-b 190 

l-k 313 p-mb 285 

1 — 123 p-v 284 

Identical 200, 214, 217, 278, 298, 309, 317, 318, 324, 328, 

330, 346, 358 
Consonant identity. . . .257 

Vowel identity 123, 215, 258, 259, 313 

Consonant mutation : 
Vowel identity 147, 190, 201, 206, 284, 285, 294, 329, 338, 352, 

360 

Terminal abrasion 214 

Terminal accretion 258, 316, 336 



118 TH^ POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



VOLOW. 

Polynesian 38 
Quality 37 

a a, e, i, 
e e 00 

i i, e U i, e, o 

I I, r, g 
ng ng, n n n, ng mm, mw 

h h 
S h 

V mh, w 
f -v 
k g, ng t t, nd, m p b, w, nggmbw 

a-a 147, 214, 217, 239, 294, 318, k-^ 251, 300, 301, 306 

309, 337, 338, 339, 357 k-wgr 357 

a-e 268, 290, 316, 317, 322, 324, n-n 147, 317, 328 

328, 350 n-ng 151, 351 

a-i 350 h-h 338, 339, 351 

a-o 307 s-h 239, 251, 337 

e-e 122, 151, 190 t-t 268, 294, 306, 324, 358 

>-* 154, 351 t-nd 350 

i-e 290, 300, 312 t-m 217 

0-0 285, 336, 357 mm 217, 312, 316, 317, 322, 

u-e 316 324, 328 

U-* 212, 306, 358 m-mw 316 

u-o 239, 284 \-mb 291 

I-/ 154, 212, 284, 307, 309, 312, \-w 307 

316, 339, 350 f-v 122, 147, 214, 290, 294 

l-r 268, 322, 335, 336 p-6 190 

1-9 358 p-'zw 284 

ng-ng 154, 309, 336, 350 p-nggmbw 151, 285 
ng-n 285 

Identical 214, 324 

Terminal abrasion. 154, 309, 318, 336, 339 
Consonant identity. . . .212, 268, 317, 328 

Vowel identity 357 

Consonant mutation : 

Terminal abrasion. . .190, 285 

Terminal abrasion 151, 154, 190, 214, 268, 284, 285, 290, 294, 300, 

306, 309, 316, 317, 318, 328, 336, 338, 339, 351 

Frontal abrasion 351 

Frontal accretion 290, 301, 339 

Terminal accretion 122, 212, 312, 350, 351 



POI.YNESIAN REUCS IN MEI.ANESIA. 119 



VURAS. 

Polynesian 28 
Quality 40 

a a, e, 0, u 
e e o 0, e 

i e u u, 

1 /, r, nd, ng 

ng ng, n n n mm 

h s 

s J 

V w 

f V 

k g, w t t, m P 'ii>, kpw 

a-a 123, 147, 214, 217, 309, 317, ng-ng 309, 336, 346 

318, 328, 339 ng-n 285 

a-e 239, 316, 324, 346 k-g 251, 301 

a-o 292, 307 k-7« 306 

a-w 307 n-n 147, 292, 317, 328, 343 

e-e 122 h-s 339 

i-e 312 s-j 239, 251 

0-0 147, 285, 336, 356, 357 U 306, 318, 324, 343, 346, 356, 

o-e 123 358 

u-u 306, 316, 343, 358 t-tn 217 

u-o 284, 292 m-w 217, 312, 316, 317, 318, 324, 

1-/ 123, 284, 307, 309, 312, 316, 328 

339 v-w 307 

i-r 336, 358 i-v 122, 147, 214, 292 

\-nd 335 p-TW 284 

l-ng 123 p-kpw 285 

Identical 214, 285, 318, 358 

Terminal abrasion. . .309, 317, 328, 356 
Consonant identity. . . .239, 316 
Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 147 

Terminal abrasion . . .357 

Terminal abrasion 214, 217, 239, 284, 306, 312, 316, 317, 318, 328, 

336, 339, 346, 356 

Frontal accretion 123, 301, 312, 339 

Terminal accretion 122, 324, 336 



120 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



WANGO. 

Polynesian 36 
QuAUTY 75 

a a 

& e o 0, a 

\ i, u vk u, 

I I, r 

ng ng n n, ng mm 

h s, t 

s s, t 

V h 
f h 
kg,— t t, k, g, — p b, h 

a-a 214, 215, 217, 239, 250, 284, k— 214, 250, 300, 305 

300, 397, 309, 312, 313, 317, k-g 251 

318, 335. 337, 339, 342, 348, n-n 317, 328, 330, 342 

350, 352, 357, 360 n-ng 351 

e-e 122, 190, 257, 318 h-^ 215, 352 

i-i 215, 259, 273, 298, 300, 305, h-t 339 

312, 313, 329, 330, 342, 348, s-i- 239, 251, 298, 342, 351 
350, 352 s-t 337 

i-u 305 U 348 

0-0 259, 309, 357 t-k 350, 356 

o-a 257 t-g 329 

u-u 239, 273, 284, 298, 317, 329, t— 217, 318, 352, 358 

330, 335, 351, 358, 360 mm 217, 257, 312, 313, 317, 318, 

U-o 328 328 

1-^ 309, 348 y-h 307 

l-r 257, 259, 284, 305, 307, 312, f-h 122, 214, 215, 259, 273, 329, 

313, 335, 339, 350, 358 360 
ng-ng 309, 350 p-6 190, 250 

p-h 284 

Identical 239, 250, 298, 309, 312, 313, 317, 330, 342, 348 

Consonant identity. . . .257, 328 

Vowel identity 214, 217, 250, 259, 300, 318, 339, 350, 352, 357 

Consonant mutation: 
Vowel identity 190, 215, 273, 284, 307, 360 

Frontal abrasion 217, 250, 305, 351, 352, 358 

Frontal accretion 298 

Terminal accretion 335, 351 



POI^YNESIAN REUCS IN MElyANESIA. 



121 



In our next series of tables we present the various observed muta- 
tions reduced to the Proto-Samoan original. The collation of the 
liquid semivowel is designedly incomplete for the reason that we 
lack sufficient and sufficiently positive data upon the occurrence of 
the r grasseye and its reproduction in terms of / and r. Under the 
l-r head, therefore, we note only anomalous changes. 



a-ai 



e-o 



e-o 



AIo Teqel 


Eromanga 


Leon 


Modnus 


Pala 


Ambrym 


Fagani 


Lifu 


Mosin 


Retan 


Aneityum 


Gog 


Lo 


Mota 


Saa 


Arag 


lai 


Maewo 


Motlav 


Santo 


Baki 


King 


Makura 


Nifilole 


Sasar 


Baravon 


Lakon 


Malekula 


Norbarbar 


Tanna 


Bierian 


Lamassa 


Marina 


Omba 


Vanikoro 


Buka 


Lambell 


Matupit 


Paama 


Volow 


Deni 


Laur 


Merlav 


Pak 


Vuras 


Ambrym 


Eromanga 


Lo 


Mosin 


Santo 


Aneityum 


Fagani 


Malekula 


Mota 


Tanna 


Baki 


King 


Malo 


Motlav 


Volow 


Belaga 


Lakon 


Modnus 


Norbarbar 




Alo Teqel 


Eromanga 


Lo 


Motlav 


Retan 


Aneityum 


Fagani 


Maewo 


New Georgia 


Santo 


Arag 


lai 


Malekula 


Nggela 


Sasar 


Baki 


King 


Malo 


Nifilole 


Sesake 


Bierian 


Lambell 


Merlav 


Norbarbar 


Volow 


Bugotu 


Leon 


Mosin 


Pak 


Vuras 


Alo Teqel 


Buka 


King 


Mota 


Nifilole 


Ambrym 


Deni 


Lamassa 


Motlav 


Omba 


Aneityum 


Dufaure Id 


Lambell 


Natalava 


Pak 


Baki 


Epi 


Laur 


New Georgia 


Sasar 


Bierian 


Eromanga 


Mosin 


Nggela 


Sesake 


Belaga 


Bugotu 


Nggela 
E 






Ambrym 


Bugotu 


Lakon 


Marina 


Nifilole 


Aneityum 


Buka 


Lamassa 


Merlav 


Pala 


Arag 


Duke of York 


Lambell 


Mota 


Retan 


Baki 


Epi 


Laur 


Motlav 


Savo 


Baravon 


Fagani 


Lo 


Motu 


Ulawa 


Bauro 


Kabakada 


Malo 


Nggao 


Vaturanga 


Bierian 


King 






• 


Aneityum 


Brieriy Id 


Lifu 


Malo 


Nggela 


Arag 


King 


Lo 


Modnus 


Pak 


Baki 


Laur 


Maewo 


Mota 


Santo 


Belaga 


Leon 


Malekula 


Motu 


Tanna 


Bierian 










Baki 


Gog 


Lambell 


Malo 


Pala 


Buka 


King 


Laur 


Motu 


Tangoan Santo 


Epi 


Lamassa 









e-M 



Alo Teqel 



Pak 



Sasar 



122 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



e-oi 



Mota 



t-ou 



I-M 



Malekula 




I 






Aneityum 
Buka 


Mota 

Nguna 


Savo 


Tanna 


Vaturanga 


Alo Teqel 

Aneityum 

Bougainville 

Buka 

Eromanga 

Fagani 


Gog 

Kabakada 

King 

Lakon 

Lamassa 

Malekula 


Malo 

Mosin 

Mota 

Motlav 

Motu 

New Georgia 


Nggao 

Norbarbar 

Pak 

Pala 

Retan 


Santo 

Sesake 

Tanna 

Volow 

Vuras 


Aneityum 
Baki 


Eromanga 
Mota 


Motu 

New Georgia 


Savo 


Vaturanga 


Baki 
Baravon 
Bierian 
Duke of York 
Fagani 


Gog 

Kabadi 

Kalil 

King 

Lamassa 


Lambell 

Lo 

Maewo 

Makura 

Malekula 


Malo 

Merlav 

Moanus 

Mota 

Motu 


Nggao 

Nguna 

Pala 

Santo 

Wango 



l-ei 



Motu 



o-t 



o-u 



Baravon 

Bugotu 

Buka 


Epi 

Fagani 

King 


Lakon 

Matupit 
Mota 


Norbarbar 

Pala 

Retan 


Santo 

Vaturanga 

Wango 


Alo Teqel 

Baravon 

Mosin 


Motlav 
Norbarbar 


Pak 
Pala 


Retan 
Sasar 


Tanna 
Vuras 


Aneityum 
Baki 


King 
Laur 


Malekula 
Malo 


Mota 
Nggao 


Norbarbar 
Paama 


Ambrym 
Aneityum 
Baravon 
Buka 


Duke of York 
Kabakada 
Kalil 
King 


Lamassa 
Lambell 
Laur 


Malekula 

Matupit 

Motu 


Nguna 

Pala 

Tanna 



o-ai 



Mota 



o-io 



Motu 



Ambrym 

Buka 

Duke of York 



Gog 
Lambell 



Malo 
Merlav 



Mota 
Motu 



Sesake 
Tanna 



Alo Teqel 
Aneityum 



Eromanga 
Malekula 



Malo 
Mota 



Omba 
Retan 



Tanna 
Volow 



U-* 





POI^YNESIAN 


RELICS IN 


MELANESIA. 




Alo Teqel 

Ambrym 

Aneityum 

Arag 

Baki 

Bierian 


Bululaha 

Epi 

Gog 

Guadalcanar 

King 

Lamassa 


Lambell 

Laur 

Lo 

Maewo 

Makura 

Malekula 


Malo 

Merlav 

Mota 

Motlav 

Nifilole 

Norbarbar 


Paama 

Pala 

Retan 

Sasar 

Tanna 

Volow 


Ambrym 

Aneityum 

Arag 

Bugotu 

Buka 


Eromanga 

Gog 

lai 

Lamassa 

Lambell 


Leon 

Malo 

Mosin 

Mota 

Motlav 


Motu 

New Georgia 

Nifilole 

Pak 

Sasar 


Sesake 

Vaturanga 

Volow 

Vuras 

Wango 



123 



Duke of York Laur 



n-au 



Lakon 



u-h 



Laur 



u-p 



Aneityum 
Aneityum 



ae-e 



Nggela 
Aneityum 



ai-c Eromanga 
Lo 



Pala 



Mota 



Malekula 



Omba 
AE 



AI 

Motlav 

AU 



Norbarbar 



Pak 



au-az 



Arag 



Murray Id New Georgia Nggela 



Ulawa 



au-o 



au-u 



1/ 



l-nd 



H 



Norbarbar 






Malekula 


Mosin 


Motlav 


Norbarbar 




L 


Alo Teqel 
Baki 


Bugotu 


Merlav 


Buka 


Gog 


Maewo 


Aneityum 


Baki (note 


312) 



Pak 



Pak 



Merlav 



Vuras 



Sasar 



Norbarbar 



\-dr 



Lakon 



Bierian 



l-th 



Bugotu 



Unl 



Lamassa 



124 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



l-k 



Aneityum 


Nggao 


Vaturanga (n 


ote 312) 




l-h 

Eromanga 


Lo 








1-M 

Dufaure Id 


Mota 


Pala 


Saa 


Ulawa 


Mosin 


Nengone 








l-mj 










Baki 










l-ng 










Alo Teqel 


Merlav 


Mota 


Pak 


Sasar 


Gog 


Mosin 


Motlav 


Retan 


Vuras 


Lakon 










I — 

Baravon 


Guadalcanar 


Motu 


Paama 


Vaturanga 


Bierian 




NQ 






ng-wg 










Alite 


Duke of York 


Lo 


New Georgia 


Sasar 


Alo Teqel 


Eromanga 


Maewo 


Nggao 


Savo 


Ambrym 


Fagani 


Malekula 


Nggela 


Sesake 


Arag 


Gog 


Malo 


Nguna 


Tangoan Santo 


Baki 


Guadalcanar 


Marina 


Norbarbar 


Tanna 


Baravon 


Kabakada 


Matupit 


Omba 


Uea 


Belaga 


King 


Merlav 


Paama 


Ulawa 


Bierian 


Lakon 


Modnus 


Pak 


Vaturanga 


Bougainville 


Lamassa 


Mosin 


Raluana 


Volow 


Bugotu 


Lambell 


Mota 


Retan 


Vuras 


Buka 


Laur 


Motlav 


Saa 


Wango 


Bululaha 


Lemaroro 


Nengone 






ng-w 










Alo Teqel 


King 


Maewo 


Motlav 


Pala 


Baki 


Lakon 


Makura 


Motu 


Santo 


Buka 


Lamassa 


Malekula 


Nguna 


Sasar 


Duke of York 


Lambell 


Malo 


Norbarbar 


Tanna 


Gog 


Laur 


Modnus 


Omba 


Volow 


Kabadi 


Lo 


Mota 


Pak 


Vuras 


ng-«; 










Aneityum 










ng-nd 










Natalava 










ng-g 










Aneityum 


Eromanga 


Makura 


Mota 


Nggela 


Baki 


Lo 


Malekula 






ng-m 










Bierian 


Malekula 


Malo 


Mota 


Santo 


ng— 










Dufaure Id 


Motu 








k-k 




K 






Ambrym 


Duke of York 


Lifu 


Motu 


Nifilole 


Aneityum 


Epi 


Maewo 


Murray Id 


Santo 


Baki 


Eromanga 


Makura 


Nengone 


Savo 


Baravon 


Fagani 


Malekula 


New Georgia 


Sesake 


Bierian 


lai 


Malo 


Nggao 


Tangoan Santo 


Bougainville 


King 


Merlav 


Nggela 


Tanna 


Bugotu 


Lamassa 


Modnus 


Nguna 


Vaturanga 


Deni 


Lambell 









POI.YNESIAN REI.ICS IN MEI.ANESIA. 



125 



k-« 



Alo Teqel 


Lakon 


Marina 


Nggao 


Sasar 


Ambrym 


Laur 


Merlav 


Nggela 


Savo 


Aneityum 


Leon 


Mosin 


Norbarbar 


Sesake 


Arag 


Lo 


Mota 


Omba 


Tanna 


Belaga 


Maewo 


Motlav 


Pak 


Volow 


Bugotu 


Malekula 


Motu 


Pala 


Vuras 


Fagani 


Malo 


Murray Id 


Retan 


Wango 


Gog 










k-kh 










Malekula 


Tangoan Santo 






k-ng 










AUte 


Mosin 


Motlav 


Sasar 


Volow 


Aneityum 


Mota 


Pak 


Vaturanga 




k-ngg 










Eromanga 


Malekula 








k-h 










Ambrym 


Malekula 


New Georgia 


Vaturanga 





k-m 



Motu 



k-mk 



Baki 



k-v 



Malo 



k-w 



k-y 



Alo Teqel 

Lakon 

Maewo 

Tanna 



Tangoan Santo 

Merlav 

Mosin 

Mota 



Norbarbar 
Omba 



Pak 

Sasar 



Sesake 
Vuras 



k— 



n-ng 



n-gn 



n-ny 



Alite 


Buka 


Malo 


Nengone 


Ugi 


Ambrym 


Bululaha 


Matupit 


Norbarbar 


Ulawa 


Baravon 


Duke of York 


Modnus 


Pala 


Wango 


Belaga 


Malekula 


Motu 

N 
Leon 


Saa 




Alo Teqel 


Eromanga 


Mota 


Saa 


Ambrym 


Fagani 


Lifu 


Motlav 


Santo 


Aneityum 


Gog 


Lo 


Motu 


Sasar 


Arag 


Guadalcanar 


Maewo 


Nengone 


Savo 


Baki 


lai 


Makura 


Nggao 


Sesake 


Baravon 


Kabadi 


Malekula 


Nggela 


Tangoan]Santo 


Belaga 


Kabakada 


Malo 


Nguna 


Tanna 


Brierly Id 


Kalil 


Marina 


Nifilole 


Ugi 


Bugotu 


King 


Matupit 


Norbarbar 


Ulawa 


Buka 


T,akon 


Meli 


Omba 


Vaturanga 


Bululaha 


Lamassa 


Merlav 


Pak 


Volow 


Duke of York 


Lambell 


Modnus 


Retan 


Vuras 


Epi 


Laur 


Mosin 


Ruavatu 


Wango 


Bugotu 


Lamassa 


Merlav 


Nggela 


Ulawa 


Fagani 


Lambell 


Mota 


Pala 


Volow 


Gog 


Laur 


Motlav 


Saa 


Wango 


King 


Lo 








Bugotu 
Aneityum 


Buka 
Modnus 









126 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



n-l 



Alite 
Arag 
Bierian 



n-m 



Bougainville 

Buka 

Fagani 



New Georgia Nggao 



Maewo 
Marina 
Mota 



Motlav 
Nggela 



Ugi 
Vaturanga 



n-t 



Malekula 



Alo Teqel 



Marina 



h-h 



h-s 



Ambrym 


Bugotu 


Lakon 


Nggela 


Retan 


Arag 


Deni 


Makura 


Norbarbar 


Vaturanga 


Belaga 


Epi 


Motlav 


Omba 


Volow 


Bierian 


Eromanga 


Nggao 






Alite 


Gog 


Malekula 


Mota 


Sesake 


Bauro 


Kalil 


Malo 


Nguna 


Tangoan Santo 


Brieriy Id 


King 


Marina 


Pak 


Ulawa 


Buka 


Lamassa 


Merlav 


Pala 


Vaturanga 


Bululaha 


Lambell 


Modnus 


Saa 


Vuras 


Eromanga 


Laur 


Mosin 


Santo 


Wango 


Fagani 


Maewo 









h-t 



Alite 



Saa 



Tanna 



Wango 



h-d 



Motu 



h-th 



Belaga 



Guadalcanar 



h-ts 



h-j 
h-t 



Tangoan Santo 
Aneityum 



Lo 



Malekula 



Aneityum 



h-t; 



Sesake 



h— 



S-J 



Ambrym 


Baravon 


Deni 


Duke of York 


Santo 


Baki 




S 
Maewo 






Alite 


Fagani 


New Georgia 


Sasar 


Alo Teqel 


Gog 


Mai 


Nggao 


Savo 


Aneityum 


Guadalcanar 


Malekula 


Nggela 


Sesake 


Belaga 


King 


Malo 


Nifilole 


Tangoan Santo 


Bierian 


Eakon 


Merlav 


Norbarbar 


Tanna 


Brumer Id 


Lamassa 


Modnus 


Paama 


Ulawa 


Buka 


Lambell 


Mosin 


Pak 


Vaturanga 


Bululaha 


Laur 


Mota 


Saa 


Vuras 


Epi 
Eromanga 


Leon 


Nengone 


Santo 


Wango 



Savo 



S-sh 



Brumer Id 



POIvYNKSIAN REUCS IN MELANESIA. 



127 



s-h 



s-d 



Ambrym 


Bierian 


Lakon 


Motu 


Norbarbar 


Aneityum 


Bugotu 


Lo 


Nggao 


Omba 


Arag 


Buka 


Motlav 


Nggela 


Volow 



Motu 



Alite 



s-k 



Baki 



s-th 



s-y 



s-r 



Belaga 



Baki 



Wango 



Tanna (note 239) 



s-w 



Duke of York. 



8 — 



Alite 



Santo 



t-t 



t-d 



t-nd 



Alo Teqel 


Bululaha 


Laur 


Motu 


Saa 


Ambrym 


Deni 


Lo 


Nengone 


Santo 


Aneityum 


Duke of York 


Maewo 


New Georgia 


Sasar 


Arag 


Epi 


Makura 


Nggao 


Sesake 


Baki 


Eromanga 


Malekula 


Nggela 


Tangoan Santo 


Baravon 


Fagani 


Malo 


Nguna 


Tanna 


Belaga 


Gog 


Marina 


Nifilole 


Ugi 


Bierian 


lai 


Matupit 


Norbarbar 


Ulawa 


Bougainville 


Kalil 


Merlav 


Omba 


Vaturanga 


Brierly Id 


King 


Modnus 


Pak 


Volow 


Brumer Id 


I^akon 


Mosin 


Raluana 


Vuras 


Bugotu 


Lamassa 


Mota 


Retan 


Wango 


Buka 


Lambell 


Motlav 






Arag 


Buka 


King 


Malo 


Pala 


Bierian 


Eromanga 


Kalil 






Baravon 


Lo 


Motlav 


Norbarbar 


Vaturanga 


Bougainville 


Maewo 


Nggela 


Sesake 


Volow 


Bugotu 











t-dr 



Ambrym 



t-ndr 



Modnus 



t-th 



Aneityum 



Baki 



Bugotu 



t-s 



t-h 



t-/ 



t-f 



Ambrym 

Aneityum 

Bierian 


Buka 
Eromanga 


Malo 
Marina 


Arag 


Bierian 


Tanna 


Baki 


Malekula 




Lemaroro 


Malekula 


Modnus 



Mota 

New Georgia 



Paama 
Tanna 



Mota (note 258) 



128 


THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 




t-n 

King 


Lamassa 


Lamb ell 


Laur 




t-m 

Alite 
Alo Teqel 
Gog 


Lakon 
Merlav 
Mosin 


Motlav 
New Georgia 
Norbarbar 


Omba 
Pak 
(note 217) 


Sasar 

Volow 

Vuras 


t-w 

Fagani 










Baravon 
Brierly Id 
Deni 


Fagani 

lai 

Kabadi 


King 

Lamassa 

Lambell 


Uiu 
Nggela 


Saa 
Wango 



H 



Wango 



Alite 


Bululaha 


Pak 


Sasar 


Ulawa 


Alo Teqel 


Fagani 


Saa 


Ugi 


Wango 


Bauro 


Leon 








m-m 




M 






Alite 


Deni 


Laur 


Mota 


Saa 


Alo Teqel 


Duke of York 


Leon 


Motlav 


Santo 


Ambrym 


Epi 


Lifu 


Motu 


Sasar 


Aneityum 


Eromanga 


Lo 


New Georgia 


Savo 


Arag 


Fagani 


Maewo 


Nggao 


Sesake 


Baki 


Gog 


Makura 


Nggela 


Tangoan Santo 


Baravon 


Guadalcanar 


Malanta 


Nguna 


Tanna 


Belaga 


lai 


Malekula 


Nifilole 


Ugi 


Bierian 


Kabakada 


Malo 


Norbarbar 


Ulawa 


Brierly Id 


Kalil 


Marina 


Omba 


Vaturanga 


Brumer Id 


King 


Matupit 


Pak 


Volow 


Bugotu 


Lakon 


Merlav 


Retan 


Vuras 


Buka 


Lamassa 


Modnus 


Ruavatu 


Wango 


Bululaha 


Lambell 


Mosin 






m-mw 










Merlav 


Mota 


Motlav 


Retan 


Volow 


Mosin 











Marina 



m-wg 



m-v 



Alo Teqel 

Nggela 



Bugotu 



m-^ 



Malo 



\-v 



y-f 



\-b 



\-mb 



Tangoan Santo (note 312) 
Lo 

Nggela 



Baki 

Baravon 

Belaga 


Gog Merlav 
Lo Mota 
Malekula Nggela 


Omba 
Savo 


Sesake 
Vanua Lava 


Ambrym 


Fagani (note 291) 






Deni 


Mai Pala 






Bugotu 


Maewo Merlav 


Motlav 


Volow 



POLYNESIAN REUCS IN MElvANESIA. 



129 



x-p 



Aneityum 
Lo 



\-pw 



\-h 



V-M 



Malekula 

Saa 

Alite 
Baki 
Bierian 



Marina 



Wango 

Eromanga 
Malekula 



Mota 



Malo 
Modnus 



Norbarbar Vanua Lava 



Mota 
Pala 



Sesake 
Tanna 



\-t 



Alo Teqel 

Ambrym 

Aneityum 

Arag 

Baravon 

Marina 



\-ku 



Bululaha 

Gog 

Leon 

Lo 

Malekula 



Mosin 
Mota 
Motlav 
Nengone 



Norbarbar 

Omba 

Pak 

Saa 



Sasar 
Ulawa 
Volow 
Vuras 



Alite 



Araa 



Maewo 



f-v 



Alite 


Epi 


Laur 


Mota 


Retan 


Alo Teqel 


Eromanga 


Leon 


Motlav 


Santo 


Ambrym 


Fagani 


Lo 


Motu 


Sasar 


Arag 


Gog 


Maewo 


Nggela 


Sesake 


Baki 


Guadalcanar 


Makura 


Nguna 


Tanna 


Baravon 


lai 


Malekula 


Nifilole 


Ugi 


Belaga 


Kabadi 


Malo 


Norbarbar 


Vaturanga 


Bierian 


King 


Marina 


Omba 


Volow 


Bugotu 


Lakon 


Merlav 


Pak 


Vuras 


Deni 


Lamassa 


Mosin 






f-f 










Bierian 


Malekula 


Nggao 


Nguna 


Tanna 


Fagani 


Meli 


Nggela 


Sesake 


Vanikoro 


Lamassa 










f-p 










Aneityum 


Eromanga 


Lamb ell 


Modnus 


Tangoan Santo 


Baravon 


King 


Malekula 


Nifilole 


Vanikoro 


Brierly Id 


Lamassa 


Matupit 


Sesake 




f-b 










Ambrym 


Bierian 


Eromanga 


Malo 


Tangoan Santo 


Baki 


Duke of York 


Malekula 






f-mb 










Modnus 


Nggela 








f-mbw 










Malekula 











f-k 



f-kr 



Aneityum 
Nggao 



f-w 



Nifilole 



f-Mg 



Tanna 



Nggao 



Vaturanga 



130 



THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



Uh 



Eromanga 
Tangoan Santo 



U 



f-h 



Ui 



Pala 



Modnus 



f-w 



Mota 



Ambrym 


Bululaha 


Lo 


Pala 


Ulawa 


Aneityum 


Kalil 


Motu 


Saa 


Vaturanga 


Bougainville 


Lambell 


Paama 


Ugi 


Wango 


Buka 


Laur 









Aneityum 



Malo 



Pala 



Alo Teqel 


Kabakada 


Matupit 


Nguna 


Santo 


Aneityum 


King 


Merlav 


Nifilole 


Sasar 


Arag 


Lakon 


Mosin 


Norbarbar 


Sesake 


Baravon 


Lamassa 


Mota 


Omba 


Ugi 


Duke of York 


Lo 


Motlav 


Raluana 


Ulawa 


Gog 


Maewo 


Nengone 






Duke of York 


Lamassa 


Maewo 


Malekula 


Nengor 


lai 


Lifu 


Makura 


Moanus 





p-p 



Alo Teqel 


Bugotu 


Lo 


Nengone 


Sasar 


Aneityum 


Bululaha 


Malekula 


New Georgia 


Savo 


Arag 


Eromanga 


Marina 


Norbarbar 


Sesake 


Baravon 


Fagani 


Modnus 


Pak 


Tanna 


Belaga 


Lakon 


Mota 


Saa 


Ugi 


Bougainville 


Lifu 


Motu 


Santo 


Ulawa 



p-mp 



Eromanga 



p-b 



Alite 


Fagani 


Laur 


Motu 


Sesake 


Baki 


Gog 


Maewo 


New Georgia 


Tangoan Santo 


Baravon 


Guadalcanar 


Malekula 


Nggela 


Tanna 


Bierian 


Kabakada 


Malo 


Norbarbar 


Vaturanga 


Brierly Id 


King 


Matupit 


Omba 


Volow 


Buka 


Lamassa 


Merlav 


Pala 


Wango 


Duke of York 


Lambell 


Motlav 


Savo 




p-mb 

Baki 


Deni 


Lamassa 


Merlav 


Norbarbar 


Baravon 


Epi 


Lambell 


Moinus 


Omba 


Belaga 


Gog 


Laur 


Nggao 


Sesake 


Bugotu 


King 


Malekula 


Nggela 


Vaturanga 


Buka 










p-m 










Bierian 


Lamassa 


Tanna (note 


207) 




p-kpw 










Arag 


Lakon 


Maewo 


Motlav' "' ■' 


Volow 


Gog 


Lo 


Mota 


Norbarbar ',3 . 


Vuras 



p-/ 

p-bii 
9-1 



Fagani 



Malo 



Aneityum 



POIvYNESIAN REUCS IN MEI.ANESIA. 



131 



p-v 



p-w 



p-h 



Arag 

Belaga 

Buka 


Epi 
Gog 
Lakon 


Malo 

Marina 

Merlav 


Modnus 
Mota 

Nggela 


Savo 

Sesake 

Vaturanga 


Buka 


Mosin 


Motlav 


Volow 


Vuras 



Wango 

P— 

Ambrym 

We shall next subject these Melanesian mutations to a comparison 
with those which have been observed in the Polynesian family, as 
set forth in the tables beginning on page 50, confining our atten- 
tion to the consonants. 



The following changes are common to the two families : L to ^, to nd, to dr, 
to n, these in the same series ; to ng in the palatal series ; to extinction. Of 
these the most widespread in the Polynesian family are the extinction and 
the w-change, the others being found in but one language apiece. In the 
Melanesian family the most widely extended are the extinction and the 
changes to n and ng. 

Distinctly Melanesian mutations are these : L to j, to m, to th, to nl, to 
k, to h, to mj. Of these, l~j identifies itself with the l-t mutation, as will 
appear in the examination of T; and with this the Baki mj is probably 
associable as a reinforced j. Similarly the l-th of Bugotu is seen to belong 
to the I-^ mutation when we observe the t-th mutation in that speech. 
Lamassa nl is a reinforced /. 

The purely Melanesian mutations, then, are 1 to m, to ^, to h. 

NQ 

Common to the two families are : NQ to n, to k, to extinction, the more 
extended in Polynesia being the first and the third, the fe-change occurring 
only in the eastern Marquesas and in Viti. The ^-mutation in Melanesia 
occurs but once, in Aneityum. The change to n is very frequent. Extinc- 
tion is met with only in Torres Straits, at Dufaure Island and Motu, in the 
latter speech forming one of the points of great resemblance with Tahiti. 

Distinctively Melanesian are : NQ to nj, to nd, to g, to m. The ^-muta- 
tion is easily seen to be a variant upon the ife-change ; it occturs in seven 
languages of the New Hebrides and in one of the Solomons. 

The purely Melanesian mutations are NQ to m, to nj, to nd. 

K 

Common to the two families are : K to ^, to ng, to ngg, to extinction. The 
extinction is the most widely extended in Polynesia, being the rule in 
Hawaii, Tahiti, and in Samoa where it is so recent that the failure of vowels 
wholly to glide over the gap is represented by ' as an alphabetic character 
under the name of the catch. In Melanesia the most frequent is the 
^-mutation, and the extinction comes next in frequency. 



132 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Distinctively Melanesian mutations are: K to kh, to tnk, to h, to w, to 
V, to w, to y. The &/i-change is of the same order as the g-mutation, a 
further move in the same series. The mk of Bakiis but a prefatory rein- 
forcement. 

The purely Melanesian mutations are : Kto h, to m, to v, to w, to y. 

N 

Common to the two families are : N to /, to r, to ng. None is frequent in 
Polynesia ; the /-mutation occurs in Nukuoro and Samoa and in but one 
word (fonu-volu 296), the ^'-mutation in but a single word in Rotuma and 
Tahiti. In Melanesia the mutations to ng and l-r are of wide extent. 

Distinctively Melanesian mutations are: N to gn, to ny, to m, to /, to 
extinction. The first of these is probably an ng-iorm, for we recall that 
the early missionaries in the Pacific adopted that spelling in the case of 
Rarotogna for the indisputable Raro tonga. 

The purely Melanesian mutations are : N to ny, to m, to t, to extinction. 

H 

The aspirate is difficult to trace in Polynesia. It is preserved as aspira- 
tion only in Nine, Tonga and Uvea ; it appears as s in Rotuma and Viti, 
as th in Viti, and once as w in Hawaii. In Melanesia the aspiration is 
preserved quite widely, still more widely it has passed into the sibilant. 
The //j-mutation appears in Belaga and Guadalcanar. 

The purely Melanesian mutations are : H to /, to d, to ts, to j, to /, to v, 
to extinction. 



Common to the two families are : S to sh, to h, to th, to extinction. In 
each family the most widely extended mutation is that from the sibilant 
to the aspiration. 

Distinctively Melanesian mutations are : S to 2, to t, to d, to k, to r, to y, 
to w. 



Common to the two families are : T to nd, to j, to th, to s, to k, to extinc- 
tion. In Polynesia the widest extent is measured by the t-k mutation. 
In Melanesia no one mutation has a marked frequency over several others. 

Distinctively Melanesian mutations are : T to d, to dr, to ndr, to h, to r, 
to n, to m, to w, to g. The d-mutation is but a sUght variant upon t itself, 
the g'-mutation is a variant of the fe-mutation. 

The purely Melanesian mutations are : T to dr, to ndr, to h, to r, to n, to 
m, to w, to g. 

M 

In Polynesia the sole variation upon the labial nasal (m-ng) occurs in but 
a single word in Maori and Viti. Similarly in Melanesia this, the only 
common mutation, occurs in but a single word, not the same, however, as 
the Polynesian, in Alo Teqel and Lo. 



POI^YNESIAN REUCS IN MEIvANESIA. 133 

Distinctively Melanesian mutations are: M to mw, to n, to ng, to v, to 
r, to t. The mi^^-change is scarcely to be classed as a mutation; it is a 
fashion in pronunciation which exists but in a restricted area of the Banks 
Group in the northern New Hebrides. 

The purely Melanesian mutations are : M to t/, to r, to t, to n, to ng. 



Common to the two families are: V to h, to w. The latter alone has 
width of extent in either ; v-h in Polynesia is found in but one word each 
in~Niue, Nukuoro, and Rotuma; and in Melanesia in but one word common 
to Saa and Wango. 

Distinctively and wholly Melanesian are these mutations : V to /, to 6, 
to mb, to p, to pw, to ti, to /, to ku, to extinction. 



Common to the two families are : F to 7;, to h, to p, to b, to w, to extinc- 
tion. In Polynesia the widest extent marks the mutations to h, to v, and 
extinction; in Melanesia the order of frequency is v, w, p, h, extinction. 

Distinctively Melanesian mutations are: F to mb, to mbw, to k, to kr, 
to n, to ng, to s, to th, to /, to u. Of these the mb and vibw are reducible 
to p (b), and the u to the common w. 

The purely Melanesian mutations are: F to k, to kr, to n, to ng, to s, 
to th, to t. 



Common to the two families are : P to 6 (mb), to v, to h, the last occurring 
in a single word common to Rotuma and Wango. 

Distinctively and wholly Melanesian are: P to mp, to w, to kpw, to/, to 
bu, to /, to w, to extinction. 

In a former paper in which I subjected the truly Polynesian lan- 
guages to a similar detailed examination* it was pointed out that 
with certain exceptions noted the whole play of consonant mutation 
was a vertical or series matter : 

One more preliminary statement: we have already said that for con- 
venience we should enter upon our alphabetical conspectus the aspirate in 
the neighborhood of each of the three series. The convenience is this, that 
the aspirate is not palatal, not lingual, not labial, yet it lies as close to the 
one as to the other. We shall find it involved in all these changes, but it 
does not affect the rule which we are about to enunciate. 

With the three exceptions noted (s-v, ng-n, t~k) the whole play of con- 
sonant mutation in Polynesian is a matter of vertical change. When a 
palatal changes it changes to another palatal, lingual modified remains 
lingual still, and labial remains labial even though its play of mutation 
carries it bodily into the vowel tract. But there is no horizontal move- 
ment, the labial under stress of change does not become palatal or lingual. 

*"Samoan Phonetics in the Broader Relation," 17 Journal of the Polynesian 
Society, 217. 



134 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Now, vertical and horizontal are convenient terms to employ when the 
conspectus is before the eye, but as terms they have no real value in nature. 
That which it is of value to recognize is that which underlies this talk 
of vertical mutation, of labial, lingual, palatal invariability. That all- 
important underlying fact is this : no matter which of the three organs of 
speech mechanism this early speaker elected to employ for the expression 
of any given sense he does not change to another organ in case the result 
is not satisfactory, and this holds true with his remotest descendants 
wherever they may to-day be found. A novice at the trade of speaking, 
he may fumble the tool he has chosen to employ, but, being man and 
obstinatively progressive, he sticks to the use of that same tool until he 
has learned the knack of it. 

Accordingly we are to omit all such instances from our discussion 
of the Melanesian dealing with Polynesian material, for inasmuch 
as the mutations are found in Polynesia without exterior influence 
we can not prove that similar vertical mutations when found west 
of Viti are due in any degree to Melanesian influence. 

The motion in each series is downward, excepting, of course, the 
three mutes which stand at the foot of each column and whose 
vertical motion can only be upward. Any exception, therefore, to 
this general downward motion of mutation calls for attention. 
There are but three such. 

1. K-y. This is found only in Tanna yasuk (251) rat. As set 
forth in the note upon this item the matter is too obscure to serve 
as a satisfactory base for any deduction. 

2. S-r. This is found only in isd (337) bad Tanna ra, a poor 
language from which to draw conclusions, particularly when the 
instance is unique. 

3. \-u. This, with the \-w, which involves no more vital a dis- 
tinction than an alphabetic symbol, is truly an upward motion on 
our charts of the sounds. But under the appearance there is a 
deeper principle. In the labial mutations we find such forms as 
rtx-mw, p-pw, p-kpw, p-bu, \-ku. If we are to interpret m-mw, for 
instance, as implying that m stands fast and at the same time moves 
upward, we are at once engaged with the phonetics of Sir Boyle 
Roche's bilocal bird. It becomes clear that the nucleus of all the 
labials is the vowel-semivowel u-w. In another place I comment 
upon the fact that the Melanesians have but recently begun to 
acquire command of their lips, not as yet facile. Thus the pri- 
mordial semivowel persists with the consonant which is evolving 
therefrom, plumule and cotyledon breaking ground together to tell 
the tale of origins. 

When these vertical mutations are omitted we shall find a con- 
siderable number remaining which we are justified in characterizing 
as Melanesian. They are the following, some effort having been 
made to assort them in reasonable groups. 



POIvYNESIAN RElylCS IN MEI.ANESIA. 135 

1. Involving the aspiration: 

k-h h'V y-h h-/ f-h p-h 

Superficially these are extra-serial mutations. If, however, my expla- 
nation be valid that the aspiration should be regarded as close to each 
series it will be permissible to regard it as the decay stage of each of these 
columns. The f-h change, too, is frequent in Polynesia. 

K-h. This rests upon five instances, one triply and two doubly sup- 
ported. In mataku (258) we find Ambry m matehag Malekula 
metoh Vaturanga matahuni. In kafika (193) Malekula Pangkumu 
has havih, two instances in one word. In ika (300) we find New 
Georgia ihani Malekula. na-ih. In feazt (301), noting the existence 
of a second stem kai, we find New Georgia hai Vaturanga hai. 
There are two widely separated foci of the mutation, Ambrym- 
Malekula, leeward islands in the central New Hebrides ; Vaturanga 
and New Georgia, leeward in the central Solomons. 

H-/. For this we have the single instance of hala (339) path Aneityum 
ne-falaig. The language is not very satisfactory and no great 
value may attach to this unique instance. 

Y\-v. For this we have but a single example, Sesake vinaga (169); 
and in this there is uncertainty as to whether the Proto-Samoan 
was aspirate or sibilant. 

\-h. This, the converse of the next preceding item, rests upon a 
single instance. In lava (307) we find Saa laha and Wango raha. 
The occurrence of this mutation is in the southern Solomons on 
either side of the straits which part San Cristoval and Malanta, 
not far from the northern k-/i focus. 

P-h. This rests upon the single instance of vula (284) in which we 
find Wango hura. This lies within the focus of the preceding 
item. 

2. We have, then, two distinct and distant foci in which there is a ten- 
dency to reproduce certain of the Proto-Samoan consonants by the aspira- 
tion. The islands on which this occurs are large islands, with the possible 
exception of Ambrym, which is near the dividing line between the large and 
the small. 

By far the larger group of the anomalies in mutation is that in 
which there is clearly a passage from one series to the next in order. 

3. I/ingual to labial : 

L-m. This rests insufficiently upon the single instance of malania 
(322) light Bierian mamama. 

N-J«. This rests on a single doubtful instance, anus (351) to spit, in 
which we find Nggao inisu and New Georgia kamisu. It occurs 
in the central islands of the Solomons. 

T-m. If this be a valid mutation it rests upon but a solitary word, 
tama (217), which in Omba, Gog, Alite and New Georgia becomes 
mama, and in Merlav, Lakon, Pak, Sasar, Vuras, Mosin, Alo 
Teqel, Motlav, Volow and Norbarbar mam. The argument for 
this mutation will be found in the note upon this item in the 
systematic study of the data. This again has two foci: one, the 
Banks Group (omitting Mota), dipping down to Omba in the 
northern New Hebrides; the other in the central Solomons. 



136 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

T-w. This change rests upon the single instance of the same tama, 
in which we find Fagani wama. As its immediate neighbors in 
the central Solomons, Ulawa, Wango, Saa and Bululaha, have the 
decapitated ama this may amount to no more than an obscure 
mouthing of the same form. 

4. Labial to lingual : 

M-r. This occurs in malama (322) light Bugotu Nggela niarara, 
neighbors in the central Solomons. 

M-n. For this we have no less than five examples, four Marina and 
one Tangoan Santo, our scanty vocabularies not allowing us to 
coordinate the two languages even in a single example. These 
are: livia (312) five Marina Una; lima (313) hand Marina Una; 
manu (317) bird Marina nanu; mata (324) eye Marina nana; malu 
(316) gentle Tangoan Santo nalum. This mutation is restricted 
to the island of Espiritu Santo in the northern and leeward New 
Hebrides, a large island. 

M-t. Found in a single instance, manifinifi (254) thin Malo tanimnivi. 

V-t. In vai (291) water, we note the doubtful case of Marina tei, an 
alternative with pet. 

)P-n. This rests upon the single instance fua (360) fruit Nifilole nua, 
and, as will be found in the systematic study of the data, a more 
consistent explanation is probable. 

F-s. This is based on nifo (259) tooth Pala ngise, and fafine (290) 
woman Eromanga sivin. I incline to see in this, first a mutation 
i-h, which is common in Polynesian and is found elsewhere in 
Melanesia (Ambrym vihin), then a secondary mutation Yi-s, which 
is extremely common. 

F-<. This is found as a variant Mota form in the same word fafine 
Mota vavine and tavine; perhaps in fia (218) how many Moanus tje. 

F-th. Occurs once, in fano (147) to go Tangoan Santo thano. 

P-/. Such a mutation is doubtfully suggested in papa(2jg) a board 
Aneityum apalapal, thin, flat. 

5. I/ingual to palatal: 

L-k. This rests upon Uma (313) hand Vaturanga kima Nggao kame 

Aneityum ni-kman, and taUnga (250) ear Aneityum Uknga. 
L-ng. This rests doubtfully upon the single instance lalo (123). 

6. Palatal to lingual : 

NQ-nc/. It appears solely in taUnga Natalava kuUnda. 

The second and smaller group of these anomalies is made up of 
the mutations from and to series two removes away. 

7. Palatal to labial : 

NQ-m. This rests, abundantly supported, upon the single instance 
of ngata (199) snake Santo mata Efate viwata Mota mata Malo 
vioata, all probably equivalent, and a variant Efate mata is equiv- 
alent with Santo mata Bierian n'mata Malekula na-mat. 

K-m. If this be valid it must rest upon kiU (304) Motu miri, with the 
added disadvantage that Melanesia affords us almost no identi- 
fications of this word. The m in kati (302) Bierian mkati follows 
a line quite other, it is clearly akin to the prefacing of the mutes 
in Viti; this is found again in keU (297) Baki Bierian mkiU. 



POI^YNESIAN RElvICS IN MElyANESIA. 137 

K-v. For this we find the single instance of kuli (194) dog Malo vuria 
Tangoan Santo vuriu. It will be observed that the area of this 
leaping mutation is included in the but scantily more extended 
area of the similar x\g-m mutation. 

K-w. This very interesting mutation, not only a leaping mutation 
but as well from a consonant to a semivowel, while most firmly 
validated, rests upon the single instance of kutu{T,o6) louse Omba 
(etc.) wutu Merlav (etc.) wut Pak (etc.) wu. The area of its 
occurrence includes all of the ng-m k-v area of the Banks Group 
and the northern New Hebrides, with a yet further extension in 
Sesake to the central tract of the latter archipelago. 

8. Labial to palatal : 

fA-ng. In a single instance, malum (316) Lo melunglung Alo Teqel 
mulunglung. It lies in the same Banks Group area of anomalies. 

Y^-ng. For this, too, we have but one example, fiha (215) how many 
Nggao ngiha Vaturanga ngisa. It lies in an area of marked 
anomalies, in fact with the k-h and n-m areas it completes a 
triangle in southern Ysabel and New Georgia and northern 
Guadalcanar of the Solomons, within which lies Savo of a far 
different linguistic character. 

F-fe. This rests as yet uncertainly on ^^fi (273) yamTanna nuk, and 
then only if n function as article with a substantive uk, n-uk. 
We note in uncertainty ifo (206) down Aneityum suko Gog sug. 
The mutation in nofo (201) to sit Nggao nokro is wholly abnormal. 

9. Finally we have left for consideration a half dozen variants which 

elude the foregoing effort to find order in irregularity. 
NQ-wy. Noted in matangi (274) the wind Aneityum ni-mtinjop. It 

is possible that m{i)tin is the survival of the stem matangi and 

jop an accretion of some sort ; I have been unable to identify jop 

as an independent word or in other composition in iVneityum. 
N-ny. This occurs in namu (328) mosquito Aneityum inyum Moanus 

njam. Buka and Bugotu have already been noted as varying 

this n to gn. 
S-y. In sulu (182) torch Baki yulu. 
T-dr. Found in to' a (375) to subside Ambrym dro dru to abide; 

tiitulu (367) to leak Baki drudruli. Associated herewith is t-ndr 

talinga (350) ear Moanus ndrilinga, tahi (352) sea Moanus ndras. 

In this reinforced r we have elsewhere found evidence of the 

effort to reproduce r grasseye. 

The result of this inspection of the anomalies in mutation is that 
we identify two distinct areas in which Polynesian material was 
rudely subjected to purely Melanesian methods, one area somewhat 
dififuse in the northern New Hebrides archipelago, including the 
Banks Group and Torres Islands, the other sharply defined on the 
larger islands in the mid Solomons; and that in at least the two 
more numerous of these anomalous mutations there seems an inter- 
relation between the two areas. 

If the result of all this painful examination were no more than the 
circumscription of these two small areas, interesting as that result 



138 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

might become when the material for Melanesian study is miore 
abundant, we should judge, and rightly, the time and labor ill spent 
which brought no better returns. 

But I feel confident that this material, thus handled, does unfold 
to us the log of the Proto-Samoan swarm and does prove to us that 
this migration, at least, followed the Melanesian course quite regard- 
less of the wind-and-wave argument on which Dr. Thilenius has 
expended so much attention. It will be observed that these studies 
have identified Proto-Samoan elements in Melanesian, and scarcely 
other than Proto-Samoan. The Tongafiti swarm does not appear. 
That must be left for later study ; first, its segregation in Polynesian 
philology, then its identification in whatever travel lane it may have 
followed. It may be that it can be identified in that mid-Pacific 
track which Thilenius proposed. This much is certain, the Tongafiti 
migration has left absolutely no trace of its passage in Melanesia. 

On the sieve hypothesis, namely, that the Polynesian content of 
Melanesia is due to drift of castaways from Nuclear Polynesia, we 
should look to find such content strongly localized at those points 
more immediately to leeward of the point of involuntary departure, 
that is in Viti and the New Hebrides. Yet as to Viti the Samoan 
record is clear. It was not drift of castaways, it was a long series 
of purposeful voyages from Samoa to Viti, from Viti to Samoa, 
for love and for war ; it was such a common voyage that the sisters 
Tilafainga and Taema swam it. And as to the New Hebrides, 
where the Polynesian content by this theory should be at its best, 
we have just proved the existence there of an area in which the 
Polynesian is at its poorest. Furthermore this Polynesian element 
is found quite as strongly, in fact more strongly, in the Solomons 
and yet more northern groups quite outside the normal course of 
drift, so far as I am able to identify it upon the charts with the aid 
of no merely theoretical familiarity with the winds and currents of 
this western Pacific. 

Let us rather examine our data in the light of what might be 
expected of a great ethnic swarm, and not the feeble struggle for 
life of fishermen landed in distress upon inhospitable shores. Let 
us set before ourselves the manner of such voyaging. 

Under the stress of some expulsive force acting upon their rear 
in Indonesia, under the draft of some force leading out into the 
f eastward unknown, the Proto-Samoan fleets passed through some 
one or more of the free channels out of the Malay seas. They were 
navigators, for, as I have already had occasion to remark, we can not 
deny them their ability to sail the seas to Nuclear Polynesia, while 
granting, as we must, their ability to sail voyages of equal length 
|out of Nuclear Polynesia to yet ulterior eastern lands. Samoa was 
po dockyard, it was no school of navigation; Bougainville's name 



POLYNESIAN REI/ICS IN MElvANESIA. 139 

of Navigators' Islands for that group had no deeper signification 
than that he found his ships surrounded by a fleet of canoes. 

We know the type of these vessels. Discoverers have described 
them in the accounts of their South Sea voyages ; sketches of them , 
there are a-plenty. I have seen the last in Samoa of the type of \ 
double canoes with sails fit for ocean-going. We know that each 
could carry its hundred or so of passengers, could eat up into the 
wind and lay a course almost as close as the fore-and-afters which 
are the American contribution to the marine. The one principal 
defect in these vessels as the vehicles of long voyages was in the 
victualling, and that defect produced a system of voyaging with- 
out which we should be at an utter loss to prick their course upon 
our charts. 

Each of these voyages was an Odyssey. Stocked with such food 
and water as they could find the means to carry they coasted wher- 
ever coasts were available to follow, and thus they voyaged until 
the commissariat called for replenishing. Then they landed, they 
established, albeit temporarily, food colonies until the land could 
yield them a crop sufficient to carry them yet farther, until the same 
ventral need established them yet again in a like food colony. 

These revictualling settlements are of the utmost moment in our 
study. Three elements are primal in the establishing of each such 
settlement. It must have a sufficient supply of water ; it must show 
an encouraging area of soil fit for tilth; its autochthonous population i 
must be such that the voyagers might feel secure of maintaining f 
themselves and their families during the months of the crop period, | 
whether by superiority in numbers or by better skill in warlike arts 
is immaterial. 

In general the supply of potable water would be found ample 
wherever the two other conditions were satisfied. In the whole 
western Pacific area there is a wide contrast between two types 
of islands mingled in close juxtaposition. The large islands are 
commonly high, great masses of volcanic extrusion with forbidding 
shores and little productive soil in sight save in small patches in deep 
bays. A race in whom the ethnic sense had reached such a high 
stage of development as to send them forth in company as these 
Proto-Samoans swarmed, would naturally expect that the large 
population of a large island would assemble in concert at the point 
of attack to repel the invader. The small islands are commonly 
low; their acreage is greater up to the visible forest, this being an 
important criterion, for visible possibilities of tilth point to a neces- 
sary sojourn of but one crop season ; to clear the jungle for plantation , . 
would require three and probably more seasons. The population of 
a small island, even if aggressively hostile, would be more within the 
control of the adventurers of a single vessel or small squadron. We 



140 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

should look, then, to find the Polynesian element most strongly- 
marked in these smaller islands rather than on the adjacent main 
where Dr. Thilenius is so insistent in pointing out their absence. 

Remember the Proto-Samoans are voyaging under sail. 

What must a Nelson have before Trafalgar can be his day? The 
weather gage. Dreading the perils of a lee shore, does not every 
sailor hug the wind ? There is in this no deep ethnic principle which 
we are called upon to estabHsh as in the possession of our Polynesian 
swarm. It is sufficient to know that they were under sail upon the 
sea; the rest follows as an elemental principle of the mechanics of 
seamanship. Thence we shall do well to look for them to windward 
in the lands along which they pass, less to leeward. 

Coming from Indonesia into the Pacific, the coasting voyage along 
the rugged heights of the Solomon Islands, which rise in the sea from 
Buka to San Cristoval, set for these voyagers a course approximately 
southeast as we now should lay it by compass, full and bye when 
reduced to the rhumb of the wind prevailing during the months 
which would be found most favorable for navigation. After 600 
miles of navigation by landmark in this great chain which with 
consistent uniformity has coincided with a full and bye, what more 
natural than that, when the last landmark has sunk astern and the 
open sea is to be adventured, the pilots still should follow the 
course set for them by the wind ? Next upon the track thus hugging 
the wind lies the Santa Cruz Group. Beyond this small archipelago 
lies yet another void of the sea, always the sea they must have loved, 
always the constant draft of the trade wind which hitherto not only 
had carried them on their course but had laid for them that success- 
ful course. We must never lose sight of the fact that it was only 
those who followed this course full and bye who found the chance 
to survive — a few points off and the voyage was protracted in pain 
and ended mutely in starvation and thirst upon an empty sea which 
marks no memorial of the manhood it takes. 

From Santa Cruz the intervals of the sea which we know are 
uneven. Working on the wind there lie a thousand miles of all but 
unbroken ocean before the next landfall. To the south — near, yet 
out of eyeshot— lie the New Hebrides. With chart and compass we 
can find the nearest land, to seek or to avoid as may best suit the 
purpose of our voyaging. But these navigators of the Polynesian 
swarm had no knowledge of what land might be in the unknown sea. 
For many leagues the course set for them by the unchanging wind 
had led them coastwise where land was, and when the sea grew 
empty the same sailing track had led them on to yet new land. 
Thus may we reasonably expect that taking their departure from the 
last sight of Santa Cruz the fleets would set bravely forth upon the 
course that so long had served them and so well. 



POIyYNESIAN RELICS IN MEIvANESIA. 141 

I feel that I can not set too acute an accent upon this idea of course. 
Without knowledge of what might lie before them, with no chart 
and with no compass to guide them, even had they known what they 
sought, there was but one fixed and recognizable fact in empty sea 
under the cloud-flecked emptiness of sky. This fact was direction, 
the angle with the wind at which their canoes were at their best 
sailing speed. Where all else was uncertainty the fixity of this fact 
must have kept them true upon the sea by night as well as by day, 
for in the darkness, when the eye could no longer see the tremor of 
the after leach of the great mat sail bellying above them, the ear 
could be warned by its quivering. All else uncertainty, this alone 
was fact. 

The New Hebrides, therefore, lying so near would yet be distant 
because out of course. Upon the shores from Norbarbar to Aneityum, 
still more remote and still more to leeward, in Uea, Lifu, and Mare, at 
the most remote spot to leeward beyond which lay no land whatever, 
at New Caledonia, would come only the dull sailors and those who 
through blast of gales had sagged down the wind. Therefore from 
the point where the axis of the land masses breaks from its northwest- 
southeast direction and sets off north-south we should expect 
to find a difference in the Polynesian content of the indigenous 
languages. 

So far in these notes our attention has been given to the direction 
of the Polynesian traverse through Melanesia. We may pause 
briefly to consider a point of relative duration of this traverse, and 
we note with surprise that Thilenius has permitted himself to write 
of a measure of weeks. 

Much earlier in this work I have noted the instances of Polynesian 
inclusions within Melanesia. Stated in terms of the point as now 
presented, these are cases where the duration of the traverse has 
reached the absolute maximum in a fixed and permanent settlement, 
a relinquishment of the voyage. 

Remember that we have no means of determining what was the 
impulse upon which these voyages were undertaken. It will, how- 
ever, involve no great strain of the probabilities if we assume as 
established the reasonable hypothesis which has been proposed, that 
the impulse upon the Polynesians commorant in Indonesia was an 
expulsive force and that it was applied upon them on their exposed 
northern flank and upon their rear equally exposed to the crowding 
of swarms of alien and incompatible migration from the Asiatic main- 
land. Upon this assumption we may naturally draw the conclusion 
that the power of expulsion had practically vanished when the 
Polynesian swarm had set the great island of New Guinea behind 
them. This we know of a certainty, in all the unknown ages which 
have elapsed, the Malayan peoples (if it were their ancestors who 



142 THE POIvYNBSIAN WANDERINGS. 

crowded out the Sawaiori) have been able to effect no lodgment 
of settlement upon that dark island, and their trade settlement has 
scarcely advanced beyond the occasional raiding dash of the sea 
rover and slaver. 

Once in Torres Straits, for such as found the exit in the Arafura 
Sea, once within the great bight of the Bismarck Archipelago, for 
what seems to have been the m.ain flight, the voyagers lacked impulse 
as they certainly wanted direction. They were afloat, but they were 
headed nowhere in particular. The world may have been in a sense 
before them, but choice was limited to such lands as they might 
chance upon. I have already spoken of the necessity of crop settle- 
ment as a condition of their naval economy. Without destination 
to lure onward, without force behind to drive them yet farther 
along, such crop settlement under favorable conditions of soil, water, 
and subduable autochthons tended inevitably to become a perma- 
nent colonization. 

If we note upon the charts the position of such Polynesian inclu- 
sions, crop settlements become fixed colonies — the islands of the 
western verge of Polynesia in Nuguria, Tauu and Liueniua, Matema, 
Ticopia, Sikayana, Mai, Aniwa, Fotuna — we shall find them with- 
out exception the windward islands of the archipelagoes with which 
respectively they are associated in descriptive geography. Even 
Rennel and Moiki, although they lie to leeward of San Cristoval 
in the southern Solomons, are yet a weatherly achievement to such 
voyagers as issued easterly from Torres Straits. Where we find 
these fixed colonies in such number there must have been other crop 
settlements similar in their beginnings which endured in the measure 
of years or perhaps generations until inability to withstand the 
assaults of the indigenes or the lure of some new squadron of 
wanderers of their own race and speech led them to essay yet 
again the great sea, never forgetting that it is inborn a character- 
istic of the Polynesian to hold himself proudly the master of the 
ocean. 

If these considerations are to be held somewhat of more worth 
than the divagations of fancy there must somewhere be some record 
to give them substance. Where else, then, than in these speech 
records which we have subjected to such minute analysis? 

But how to make the record appear? 

For Mota, for Aneityum, and for Efate we now have dictionaries 
of unequal excellence. These languages we may, therefore, compare 
with the Polynesian languages for which we have similar standards, 
indeed regulate by so much of the comparative Polynesian phil- 
ology as has been elaborated upon these data. For so much we 
are thankful, yet these are but three, and in the data upon which 
these studies rest we have had under intimate dissection no less than 



POI.YNESIAN RKUCS IN MEI/ANESIA. 143 

ninety languages in Melanesia. Had we dictionaries of each of the 
ninety we might easily note the exact percentage of words which 
mark the Polynesian content in each. Then our comparison would 
be as exact as it would be facile. Unfortunately there remain 
eighty-seven languages of which our knowledge rests upon a very- 
few words preserved at random in many works of reference. The 
exact measiu"e we seek is impossible of application. 

Yet we are by no means left without recourse. There is at 
our hand a certain measure of the quality of the Polynesian inclu- 
sions in these Melanesian tongues. The identifications have been 
made with all the assistance which can inhere in long practical 
acquaintance with the comparative Polynesian philology. I have, 
accordingly, had no hesitation in definitely accepting as Polynesian 
identification many a word which would completely fail of recog- 
nition by the Polynesian of any one tongue. This is due to the fact 
that the Melanesian, alien to the Sprachgeist of his loan material, may 
deal with the Polynesian word which has come into his possession 
according to the spirit of his own speech. Thus the Samoan who 
says fafanga, to feed, might quite fail of recognizing his mother 
tongue when the New Irelander had trimmed here and added there 
to make Ivambell angan; and his familiar longo, to hear, would be 
wholly inaudible to him in Marina rogotag. Yet there are words 
which he could comprehend. 

I have therefore taken as criteria of this measurement the words 
in each Melanesian language which a Samoan, knowing only Samoan, 
could comprehend if he were set down on the alien shore amid a 
hostile folk under circumstances where every instinct of life would 
fill him with anxious desire to know from the strange sounds what 
disposition was to be made of him. Not the learned pursuits of 
a philologist this, but the working of the wits of a man under the 
compelling stress of elemental need. I assume that his ears thus 
pricked up would gather those words which exist in common in his 
language and that of his savage hosts, and there are many such, 
even where the final vowel has undergone abrasion. Further I 
assume that when the consonant structtue of any given word remains 
the same in the two languages his wits would be sharp enough to 
recognize the word when the vowels had undergone modification; 
thus Epi fefene would be easily comprehensible to the Samoan who 
says fafine for woman. The same will hold when the vowel structure 
is constant ; thus Ulawa nimanima could not but be comprehensible 
to the Samoan who knows his hand as lima. Finally, in those cases 
where the vowels remain unaltered and the mutation of consonants 
is not at variance with the system of mutation normal to the Polyne- 
sian languages, I feel justified in the assumption that the strain of 
need would awaken our Samoan to a conscious recognition of his 



144 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

own word in its new guise. In effect I set before the individual the 
task which has proved easy to his race.* 

For each of the languages of sufficient representation I have tabu- 
lated the results of this examination and have set them down in the 
foregoing tables. Employing the sum of these several elements as 
dividend, and for divisor the whole number of words in the available 
material which have been identified as Polynesian, we obtain a 
figure which stands for the quality of the resemblance of each lan- 
guage with the Proto-Samoan, and this coefficient of quality has 
been inserted in its proper place in the tables. 

Now for the graphic presentation of the results. Upon the chart 
of the island-studded ocean between the termini of Indonesia and 
Polynesia, respectively, we insert these coefficients of quality and 
delimit the areas of equal resemblance. 

*Not a single detail of such westward drift and its result can be lacking in interest 
to us. Therefore I note the following double instance from the Rev. John Inglis's 
"In the New Hebrides" (page 33) : 

"On Aneityum the idols were all, like the Jewish altars, of uncarved, unhewn 
stones. The only exception to this which we ever found was in the case of Tuatau, 
a natmas which I found at Anauunse and took home with me. Tuatau was of wood, 
a piece of a breadfruit tree. Like the idolaters mentioned by the prophet, the maker 
of this idol had chosen a tree that will not rot. It was a rudely shaped, uncouth 
figure, its countenance only very slightly resembling the human face divine. I was 
struck with its being made of wood, and afterwards learned that it was not a native 
idol — it was of foreign manufacture. It had a little history of its own, which may serve 
to illustrate that of ' the image which fell down from Jupiter '(Acts xix, 35). About the 
beginning of this [the nineteenth] century as nearly as native chronology supplied me 
with the date on which to calculate, in the days of Tuatau, a great chief of Anauunse, 
this poor idol was one morning found drifted ashore by the northeast wind. How long 
it had been tossed upon the ocean nobody knew. But as it bore all the marks of a 
Malay idol [Dr. Inglis thus denominates the Polynesians], and was very like the fisher- 
man's god of Rarotonga, as given in Williams's ' Missionary Enterprises' and which, he 
says, 'was placed on the forepart of every fishing canoe; and when the natives were 
going on a fishing excursion, prior to setting off they invariably presented offerings to 
the god, and invoked him to grant success' — it seemed highly probable that this idol 
was a Rarotongan fisherman's god — that the canoe on which it was borne had been 
wrecked — that the poor fishermen had been drowned — and that the idol had been drifted 
along before the tradewinds till it was cast ashore on Aneityum. But, be that as it 
may have been, its subsequent history was well enough known. Among a people 
remarkably unskilled in the pictorial arts, its faint resemblance to the human form 
secured for it favor and veneration. The day on which it was found was one on which 
Tuatau was making a great feast. The natmas ses were always closely connected with 
the feasts. It was one of the fundamental articles in the creed of heathenism on Anei- 
tyum that the man who made the largest feasts and who presented the most costly 
offerings to the natmasses was the man that most effectually propitiated their favor. 
The sacred men all declared that the natmasses had made this image and brought it to 
Tuatau; and the chief and the ignorant populace accepted the statement as readily, and 
believed it as firmly, as the Asiarchs and the idolaters of Ephesus believed that the ugly 
little statue, made of ebony and vine wood by Canetias, was, as the priests of Diana 
affirmed it to be, 'the image that fell down from Jupiter.' The chief received it as a 
token of the special favor of the natmasses, placed it within the sacred enclosure, and 
thenceforth regarded it as his tutelary divinity. After the death of Tuatau the idol 
received his name, and was supposed to be watching over his spirit; and it continued 
to be worshipped till Christianity was accepted in Anauunse. 

"Had the idol been a man — a shipwrecked sailor, or one of the poor fishermen on the 
prow of whose canoe it sat conspicuous as Castor and Pollux did in the ship that carried 
Paul — to a certainty he had been killed, and most probably also eaten; at least a ship- 
wrecked sailor met with this sad fate at Eromanga within less than a twelvemonth of 
the time when Tuatau fell into my hands; but being a block of wood, shaped so as to 
have a faint resemblance to a man, it was set up and worshipped as a god." 



POI.YNESIAN REWCS IN MEI.ANESIA. 145 

As soon as we trace the contours connecting the islands whose 
languages show approximately equal coefficients of Polynesian qual- 
ity it becomes at once manifest that we are concerned with two 
great areas. These are so distinct, so widely separated, that it is 
practically impossible to conceive of them as having the same origin, 
at least in this Melanesian tract of the Pacific with which we have 
to do. We shall therefore do well to consider them in detail, each 
by itself, and to reserve the discussion of their diversity of origin 
until after that preliminary survey. 

One of these areas embraces southern Melanesia, from the Torres 
Islands to New Caledonia. In these islands, the New Hebrides form- 
ing the principal and determining mass, the contours of equal quality 
extend from northwest in a general direction toward the southeast. 
Along the axis cutting these contours from northeast toward south- 
west we fiTid that the coefficient of quality diminishes from the east. 
In the southern New Hebrides we find two instances of purely 
Polynesian speech, at Aniwa and at Fotuna, these representing the 
position of the contour of loo. It is important to note that Aniwa 
and Fotuna are the most weatherly of the New Hebrides archi- 
pelago, that is to say they are the points to be reached by a fleet 
steering full and bye, the best sailing point of canoes and the only 
sailing point which gives the helmsman on unknown seas a sense 
of direction for his course. The three larger islands in this section 
of the archipelago show scant traces of Polynesian admixture, and 
the quality coefficient is low; Eromanga 58, Aneityum 46, and Tanna 
no more than 29. Still farther west the I^oyalties make no better 
showing: Nengone 45, and Lifu 42, while Uea records a Polynesian 
content entirely of the modern epoch and known to be derived 
from an involuntary voyage from Uvea in Nuclear Polynesia. 

In the examination of the central and northern New Hebrides, 
for except in the history of discovery it is not advisable to disso- 
ciate the Banks Group, we are able to draw contours of 90, 80, 
and 70 quite plainly. Along the windward face of the archipelago 
appear spots which might establish the curve of 100, such being the 
Polynesian settlement in Efate and Mae on the island of Three Hills. 
At the north the curve of 90 is established on Vanua I^ava by Leon, 
the other languages of that island standing at 40 and the bush 
language (Alo Teqel) at the lowest mark of 19. Working down the 
weather aspect of the archipelago, Arag falls but Uttle below this 
contour and Makura, Nguna and Efate lie above it. Mota in the 
extreme north shows the same influence as Leon on Vanua Lava. 
The contours of 80 and 70 are satisfactorily drawn in close paral- 
lelism with that of 90 and are well established by a sufficiency of 
points of identification. The high value of Marina 89 in the deep 
bay of the north coast of Espiritu Santo need not prove as anoma- 



146 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

lous in position as at first sight it might appear. While Vanua 
Lava-Mota-Arag identify one point of migration entrance into the 
archipelago, it is quite probable that Marina- Arag identify another 
entrance for fleets sailing a little to leeward when making this 
landfall. 

We next examine the northern area. Its curve of loo is beauti- 
fully established along a great length ; from southeast to northwest 
we note Anuda, Ticopia, Matema, Sikayana, Liueniua, Nukumanu, 
Tauu and Nuguria, all Polynesian communities, all the most weath- 
erly islands of the Santa Cruz Group, of the Solomons, and of New 
Ireland respectively. At the other limit the curve of 60 may dis- 
tinctly be traced along the leeward faces of the Solomons and of 
the Santa Cruz Group. Between these two well-marked contours 
the curves of 70 and 80 are very distinct in the Solomons and in 
the strait between New Britain and New Ireland. Along the range 
of the Solomons the migration track is plainly drawn along the 
weather coast or in the easy channel fromsouthernYsabel toUlawa. 

We may now examine the points at which the migration streams 
which establish these two areas come into closest approximation. 
These points are two, the interval between Deni and the Torres 
Islands, and the interval between Moiki-Rennel and the southern 
Solomons. Here, if anywhere, the two streams came their nearest 
to a chance of mingling. 

In this examination we must bear in mind a few clearly estab- 
lished facts. These voyages were performed without chart or com- 
pass. The leaders knew nothing of what land might lie before them. 
Their only norm of direction was set by the constancy of the trade 
wind and their only method of conforming to that norm was by 
sailing closehauled, to which they had the added inducement of 
seamanship in that this was the best sailing point of their canoes. 
To deviate from that course where no landfall had been made and 
where there was no knowledge that land might exist would be to 
relinquish a purposeful voyage for merely idle cruising. 

In the case of the gap south of Deni intermingling could have 
taken place only from the north toward the south. It is incon- 
ceivable that a fleet having made the most northerly landfall of the 
New Hebrides, whether at lyO or at Vanua Lava, should leave the 
new lands already in sight to beat dead to windward where no 
land was known to exist. Similarly there could be no reason for 
vessels taking their departure from the Santa Cruz group to leave 
the one course which they knew, to set out toward the south which 
was a direction they had no means of determining, and to run free 
upon their least convenient and most dangerous point of sailing. 

At the other point of approximation we should note that Moiki 
and Rennel are invisible from the nearest islands, Guadalcanar and 



POI.YNE)SIAN RELICS IN MEI^ANESIA. 147 

San Cristoval, and that no land is visible from them. They are 
islands having the speech quality coefficient of lOO, for they are 
settled by Polynesians. Such islands we have already learned to 
look for as the most weatherly achievements of Polynesian voyagers 
in this great migration movement. In the southern Solomons the 
course of migration is distinctly marked to windward of Malanta 
and through the island-dotted channel north of Guadalcanar and 
San Cristoval. With all these landmarks to point the way it is 
inconceivable that canoes should leave the coastwise course and 
head to leeward for islands far beyond their sight and wholly out 
of their knowledge. Likewise for voyagers passing beyond Moiki- 
Rennel the closehauled course would not carry them within sight 
of San Cristoval, but would give them a more distant landfall in 
the Torres Islands, and thence the land in view would deflect them 
southeastward on a coasting voyage. 

It is quite clear, therefore, that these two points of approach were 
gaps not crossed and that the two streams of migration remained 
largely distinct. The dull canoes of the northern stream, a few set 
to leeward by gale or other accident, may have reached the southern 
stream and have escaped notice ; but that there was any accretion to 
the northern stream from the southern is wholly out of the question. 

No account has yet been made of the two western points of this 
identification, Moanus 83 north of New Guinea, and Motu 85 in the 
Gulf of Papua on the southern coast of that great island. With 
the mass of this almost continental island beween them these two 
distant points of equal quality must stand apart. Each represents 
the most westerly identifiable point of a migration swarm and these 
two swarms must have been wholly distinct. Moanus I regard as 
the first point of the stream which in part went to windward of 
New Ireland and in part has left its traces in St. George's Channel, 
thence has swept along the Solomons, thence past Matema and 
Ticopia and onward to Rotuma, and still beyond to its lodgment 
in Samoa — the Samoa Stream. Motu and Moiki likewise establish 
earty points on the migration track which generally parallels the 
Samoa Stream, but runs some distance southward until it makes 
the landfall of the northern New Hebrides and then is deflected 
sharply south by the opportunity and the convenience of sailing 
coastwise with its double joy of war and victual, which sets forth 
once more upon empty sea from Aniwa and Fotuna and at last 
enters Nuclear Polynesia by way of Fiji — the Viti Stream. 

Now it comes to us to discuss briefly the relative age of the 
Polynesian content identified in Melanesian possession and the same 
material in Polynesia itself. 

Of two forms in general, one with a final vowel and one with a 
terminal consonant following the same vowel, which in all proba- 



148 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDE^RINGS. 

bility is the elder? As between two great groups of speech, to one 
of which the final consonant is most repugnant, to the other of 
which the final consonant is so distinctly pleasurable that in many 
parts of the group a stem final vowel is abraded in order to reach 
a closed syllable, in antecedent probability which of these repre- 
sents an earlier type? 

We do not have to rest on the antecedent probability, clear as 
we shall find it. That the form in the terminal consonant, the 
characteristic Melanesian form, is the earlier and elder is shown us 
in the Polynesian itself. I^ook at vdlu (281) to scrape taro; Efate 
haru-si Mae harusi, of the same sense, might lead us to infer that 
the root form is bar us; in Samoan vdlusanga, the derivative meaning 
taro scrapings, we find a direct proof that the s is radical, for the 
formative suffix was applied early enough to protect the final con- 
sonant from abrasion. Examples abound in these data ; I note but 
these few for the reference of such as wish to give the topic extended 
study: 71, 81, 160, 162, 191, 204, 224, 227, 266, 283, 289. 

This, too, plays an important part in the condemnation of the 
sieve theory and the castaway drift. Which is more reasonable, 
that a dozen very closely allied languages should act harmoniously 
in dropping final consonants, or that ninety languages with very 
scant community and no intercommunication should agree in adding 
precisely the same consonant as closure to open roots brought them 
in storm-driven canoes, and that the same terminals should be picked 
up in several cases by the score of languages in Indonesia, a region 
physically exterior to all such possibility of canoe drift? There can, 
indeed, be no shadow of doubt that the Melanesians in their keeping 
of the Polynesian loan material have preserved an earlier type. 
Therefore the conclusion is inevitable that the Polynesians were 
commorant in Melanesia at some time, and for some time, anterior 
to their settlement of the unoccupied lands of the central and east- 
ern Pacific. 

We are dealing in these studies with the record of what the Poly- 
nesians taught the Melanesians, no inconsiderable contribution in 
the aggregate. But did the Melanesians teach the Polynesians 
nothing? Was the gift altogether so one-sided? 

In the rigid examination of the material I can find but a single 
word which I suspect to have come into Polynesian possession from 
Melanesian tongues. This is Samoan 'isumu (251) rat, and it calls 
for no little agility to identify this word, not elsewhere Polynesian 
and by no means in common Samoan use, with the word which 
means rat in certain parts of Melanesia, namely in the New Hebrides, 
and in the Solomons in just that area of the islands of the Malanta 
channel which marks our curve of maximum quality of Polynesian 
content. 



POIvYNBSIAN RE^I^ICS IN MEI/ANESIA. 149 

The reason is by no means far to seek. 

Homekeepers have ever homely wits. Our Polynesians, who had 
the genius to conduct such voyages as under far more favoring 
conditions have brought immortality to Quiros and Mendana, to 
I/a Perouse and Dumont d'Urville, to Magelhaens and Roggewein, 
to Cook, to Byron and to Bligh, to Wilkes — such were a folk far in 
advance of the rude autochthons of the islands they encountered in 
their passage. The black man could learn much from the brown; 
there was little in the liberal arts that the Melanesian could com- 
mimicate to the bright, aye the brilliant, Polynesian. Where they 
came into contact could only have been in the crop settlements, 
and in such it must have been an essential condition that the black 
sat in subjugation to the brave brown sea-rover. What does the 
slave in any community teach to his lord which comes into the 
prevailing speech? One word in these two hundred is all we can 
suspect the Polynesian to have taken from the Melanesian, and that 
one very doubtful. Yet who of us without painful research can 
identify for so much as the five fingers of but a single hand a word 
apiece which the Britons have set into the language which is ours 
by right of the conquest of Britain by the Roman, the Saxon, the 
Norman? 

Yet one more reason is simultaneously and equally operative. 
Crop settlement approximating semi-permanence may have taken 
place piecemeal among ninety varying languages. Such Melanesian 
elements as each settlement might have permitted itself to adopt 
in the particular spot of its sojourn would be incomprehensible to all 
other members of the migration swarm who had sojourned in con- 
tact with each of the other eighty-nine languages. Upon their reas- 
sembling in Nuclear Polynesia the alien elements comprehended but 
by the company of a single vessel would be restricted in compre- 
hensibihty to that crew alone, and, thus from the beginning limited 
in use, would tend toward disuse and Polynesia would know them 
no longer; the superior language would heal its own wounds. 

Before leaving this central chapter in which we have discussed in 
many fights the Polynesian content of Melanesian speech I wish to 
sum up the major conclusions to which we have been led. 

1. In the plexus of Melanesian speech a certain element has been 
proved to have a common origin with the Polynesian. 

2. That this varies in quality according to the abifity of its 
Melanesian possessors to respect the vital principle with which it 
came into their possession. 

3. That this represents, wherever the data admit of deduction, 
a phase more primitive than the Polynesian of the eastern archi- 
pelagoes. 



150 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS, 

4. That it can not be drift material brought by eastern castaways, 
but is derived from the sojourn of Polynesian ancestors in Melanesia 
when on their way from Indonesia to the mid- Pacific. 

5. That from the material here involved in discussion we can lay 
out one great track of the migrant swarm with much precision, and 
that a second may be laid out with considerable probability. 

6. That along these two tracks the only Polynesian voyagers who 
have left any trace are those of the earlier Proto-Samoan swarm, 
and that the wanderings of the later Tongafiti migration must be 
sought elsewhere than in Melanesia. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
SAWAIORI MATERIAL IN INDONESIA. 

Limitation of the points of inquiry — Check-list of the Indonesian 
material — Synoptical tables of mutation varieties — ^Mutations com- 
pared with the systems of the Pacific languages — Character and prob- 
able place of the contact of Indonesian and Polynesian — ^The nature of 
an ethnic swarm discussed — ^The Malay advance was an affair of 
outposts — ^U'hence arose the speech community, which after all is a 
matter of but a gross of words — The Indonesians are shown to be 
borrowers — Two lines of Sawaiori escape through the Malay Archi- 
pelago lead to the two tracks identified through Melanesia — ^The 
designation Malayo-Polynesian should be discarded because false. 

The scope of this work does not include such a detailed dissection 
of the Indonesian languages as that to which the Melanesian tongues 
have been subjected in the foregoing chapter. This speech area 
has its own diligent students, and to their researches we owe the 
present advanced state of our knowledge of the multiplicity of 
Malaysian speech. Thus are we spared the necessity of pathfinding. 

In the present chapter we shall limit our attention to the con- 
sideration of such Indonesian material as is brought into comparison 
with the data from the Pacific areas here under discussion. We 
shall examine it for the purpose of discovering to what extent it 
may be used either in support or in disproof of the theory that the 
Pacific languages have developed out of the Indonesian, or that both 
derive from a common parent. In this we shall develop whatever 
support such examination may give to the theory that this common 
parent was Semitic. We shall be led to a rigid consideration of the 
validity of the older consociation of these speech areas as the 
Malayo-Polynesian family. 

Beyond these several points of inquiry we shall not advance. We 
shall do no more than to place these data conveniently at the service 
of students of Indonesian philology. 

As we have done in the earlier chapters we present a series of 
tables for readiness of access to the material here assembled. For 
a large amount of the Indonesian material indebtedness is gratefully 
acknowledged to the industry and research of Mr. Tregear recorded 
in his "Maori Comparative Dictionary." 
Malay . . 



9 


10 


27 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


36 


37 


45 


46 


47 


79 


170 


171 


173 


174 


175 


176 


177 


178 


179 


iSi 


183 


185 


215 


2l6 


2l8 


220 


221 


222 


223 


224 


225 


226 


227 


228 


229 


230 


232 


233 


236 


237 


239 


240 


241 


243 


244 


245 


246 


247 


248 


250 


251 


255 


256 


257 


258 


260 


261 


262 


264 


265 


266 


268 


270 


271 


272 


273 


274 


275 


276 


277 


278 


279 


281 


282 


283 


284 


286 


287 
151 


288 



152 THE POIyYNBSIAN WANDERINGS. 

Malay... 289 290 291 292 294 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 304 305 

306 307 308 309 310 311 312 315 316 317 318 321 323 324 

325 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 

340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 

354 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 

Malagasy 28 35 37 38 46 47 169 171 172 175 177 179 184 213 

216 218 219 220 221 223 228 231 232 234 235 236 238 239 

242 244 246 247 249 250 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 

267 272 273 274 277 278 281 282 283 288 290 293 294 296 

297 298 301 302 307 308 311 312 314 316 317 318 319 320 

321 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 

337 338 339 340 341 343 344 345 346 347 348 350 353 355 

357 358 362 363 364 

Ahtiago.217 290 291 300 305 306 312 317 324 329 330 333 352 360 

Allor....291 

Amblaw 217 265 278 291 300 312 316 317 330 360 

Amboyna 190 352 

Aru 284 

Awaiya.180 217 257 278 290 291 300 312 317 324 330 333 350 352 

Baju 251 257 265 278 291 301 305 306 309 312 317 324 333 335 

350 360 

Baliyon .250 269 308 324 335 343 

Basakrama 250 266 279 312 350 

Batak...329 

Batavia .243 

Batumerah 278 290 291 300 312 313 316 317 324 330 333 350 

Beu 243 

Bicol 214 237 250 274 292 330 

Binue . . .343 

Bolanghitam 217 278 306 309 312 313 317 324 

Borneo. .300 309 350 360 

Bouton..2i7 257 259 290 300 305 306 312 313 317 324 333 350 

Brissi West 259 

Bual 278 

Bugi 47 267 274 277 279 292 308 328 343 344 350 352 360 

Buru 291 352 356 361 

Caimarian 217 265 278 290 291 300 306 312 317 324 329 330 333 

350 352 360 

Cajeli...2i7 265 278 290 291 312 313 317 330 333 360 

Ceram...278 291 329 352 356 

Charaorri 350 352 

Champa. 291 308 312 313 

Dorey. . .291 312 

Dyak...309 312 317 324 328 330 350 

Ende....278 

Gah 217 251 257 265 275 278 290 300 306 312 316 317 324 329 

330 352 360 

Galela ..278 352 

Gani 278 290 291 298 300 306 312 317 352 

Gilolo...284 

Goram. . .291 

Guaham.317 352 

Ilocan . .267 277 284 290 294 300 323 324 332 334 339 342 346 

Java 31 171 182 224 225 251 261 265 267 270 272 273 274 276 

277 278 283 285 288 289 290 295 298 299 300 306 308 312 

316 321 324 330 333 334 335 336 339 342 344 346 350 352 

357 360 364 

Jobi 312 

Kaili....278 284 

Kaioa Id. 291 

Kandayan 343 

Kawi . . .250 334 352 

Kayan..259 263 273 275 277 278 294 308 309 312 317 322 324 328 

344 346 

Kisa....259 265 273 274 276 278 282 283 284 295 312 313 317 318 

323 324 

Lampong 312 343 

Landa . . . 343 



SAWAIORI MATERIAIy IN INDONESIA. 153 

I.ariko..2i7 265 278 290 300 306 312 317 324 330 333 350 

Liang... 217 265 278 290 291 300 312 313 317 324 330 333 350 360 

Lobo....284 

Macassar 78 216 252 256 267 279 285 290 294 306 308 313 318 324 

327 328 329 332 343 344 345 347 350 352 353 355 

Madura.. 290 305 324 

Magindano 250 259 274 276 284 294 308 312 313 317 318 321 342 

347 
Mame. ..312 

Manatolo 259 

Massaratty 217 251 290 291 300 306 312 329 330 333 350 360 

Matabello 259 265 278 300 306 312 316 317 324 329 333 352 

Matu....261 267 276 277 305 317 327 336 344 350 

Mayapo..2i7 265 290 291 300 306 312 317 329 330 333 350 360 

Menado..2i7 291 300 306 309 312 313 317 324 333 360 

Menankabau 350 
Molucca . 284 

Morella..i9o 217 278 290 291 300 306 312 313 317 324 330 333 350 

360 

Mysot...2i7 278 290 291 300 306 312 324 361 

Nicobar . 300 324 326 

Pampangas 276 277 278 309 312 321 324 327 328 344 353 

Pangasinan 329 

Pani 295 

Rotti ...278 284 291 

Salayer .217 275 285 290 306 312 324 330 333 360 

Salibabo 257 278 290 291 312 317 330 360 

Salu ... .278 

Sambawa 312 329 343 

Sandol . .278 

Sanguir 217 290 306 309 312 317 329 333 352 360 

Saparua 180 217 259 290 291 300 312 316 317 324 333 335 350 

Saru....l71 312 

Sassac . .343 

Satawal 294 350 352 

Savo....259 

Savu....294 305 317 324 335 343 

Silong..290 291 294 300 323 324 339 350 

Sirang . .312 

Siwa .... 346 

Solor....284 291 

Sula....259 275 278 306 317 350 

Sulu 214 267 290 291 294 300 308 312 313 317 324 330 335 350 

Sunda. . .352 

Tagalog . 45 185 214 249 250 259 267 274 276 277 287 295 308 309 

312 321 324 327 344 346 350 353 

Teluti...2i7 265 290 291 300 312 316 317 324 330 333 360 

Teor 217 278 285 290 291 300 301 305 306 312 313 317 324 333 

350 360 
Ternati. .276 

Tidore...278 295 300 352 

Timor... 278 284 312 329 

Tobo 217 278 329 330 333 352 

Togeanlds 46 278 284 291 292 294 298 308 312 317 321 324 352 

Tringanu 284 

Ulea....350 

Utanata 284 

Vaiqueno East 259 291 

Visayas..l85 274 278 287 292 310 312 317 327 344 350 363 

Wahai..2i7 278 300 306 312 317 324 330 333 350 360 

Waigiou.290 291 317 344 361 



154 



THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



It will now be in order to tabulate as in other chapters the refer- 
ences to the several mutation varieties. 

A. 



Bolanghitam 


309 




Menado 


309 








a-e 

Malay- 
Malagasy 

Awaiya 

Baju 

Batumerah 


216 
239 
316 
350 
350 
350 


250 
250 


302 


Caimarian 

Dyak 

Lariko 

Liang 

Mayapo 

Morella 


350 

309 324 

350 

350 

350 

350 


Saparua 

Satawal 

Sula 

Teor 

Togean Ids 

Wahai 


350 
350 
350 
290 
292 
350 




a-t 
Malay 
Malagasy 


183 
246 


302 
312 




Saparua 
Teluti 


290 
290 


Teor 


313 324 


360 


a-o 
Malay 
Baliyon 
Basakrama 
Bugi 


324 
324 

312 

277 


279 




Dyak 317 325 
Kisa 282 
Macassar 350 
Menankabau 350 


Salibabo 
Saru 
Togean Ids 


278 
312 
312 




a-M 

Malay 
Bugi 


181 
350 


224 


307 


Java 

Mysot 


224 324 
324 


Ternati 


276 




ai-e 

AUor 
Rotti 


291 
291 






Teluti 


291 


Togean Ids 


291 




ai-ei 

Batumerah 


291 






Morella 


291 








al-oi 
Baju 


291 






Vaiqueno 


East 291 









e-o 



Malay 

Malagasy 
Ahtiago 
Awaiya 
Batumerah 


47 
247 
249 
290 
290 
290 


128 
272 
297 


132 
297 

338 


Bugi 

Caimarian 

Java 

Lariko 

Liang 

Salibabo 


47 
290 
272 
290 
290 
257 


Saparua 

Sulu 

Tagalog 

Teluti 

Teor 

Visayas 


290 
290 
249 
290 
290 
310 


e-ai 
Matu 


276 














e-i 
Malay 

Ilocan 


132 
3" 
338 
290 


261 

315 

347 


290 

318 


Java 
Kisa 

Macassar 
Madura 


261 276 290 
276 318 323 

347 
290 


Magindano 
Matu 
Salayer 
Sanguir 


276 

26l 

290 
290 


e-u 
















Java 


272 















e-y 



Malagasy 172 318 



SAWAIORI MATERIAL IN INDONESIA. 



155 



l-o 



Malay 174 225 22/ 

288 329 
Malagasy 355 
Batavia 243 



Chamorri 350 
Dorey 291 

Java 225 



Sanguir 329 
Silong 300 

Tobo 330 



Malay 
Awaiya 

Basakrama 312 
Caimarian 291 
Java 171 



170 171 352 
180 291 



Kisa 

Sanguir 

Saparua 

Saru 

Silong 



274 
290 
350 
171 
291 



Teluti 330 

Timor 312 

Ulea 350 

Waigiou 291 



Malay 
Gah 



l-M 



Malay 
Malagasy 



l-y 



225 
352 



222 223 225 

362 

171 362 



Madura 
Savu 



Ahtiago 

Baju 

Bouton 



305 
305 



305 
305 
305 



Teor 



Matu 
Savo 



305 



305 
259 



Malagasy 219 346 347 350 



0. 



o-a 












Malay 


255 257 296 


Awaiya 


257 


Kisa 


259 




3" 336 353 


Baju 


257 


Matu 


336 




362 


Bouton 


257 


Salibabo 


257 


Malagasy 


255 282 296 


Gah 


257 


Tagalog 


287 




355 


Kayan 


259 263 


Visayas 


287 


o-au 












Malay 


309 


Tagalog 


309 







Malagasy 353 



Malagasy 
Bouton 
Brissi West 


331 353 

259 

259 


362 


Manatolo 

Savo 

Sula 


259 
259 
259 


Tagalog 259 
Vaiqueno East 


O-M 

Malay 
Malagasy 


181 221 
331 357 
171 314 
331 


325 
325 


Baliyon 

Java 

Magindano 


269 

285 336 354 

259 


Pampangas 

Salayer 

Tagalog 


353 
285 
353 


o-y 

Malagasy 


259 




U 








u-a 

Malay 

Malagasy 


79 220 
239 266 
299 316 

273 281 


221 
281 


Basakrama 

Java 

Lariko 


266 
299 316 

278 


[ Matu 
Sambiwa 
Sula 


344 
343 
306 


U-OM 

Malay 


334 













259 



156 



TH^ POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



Malay 

Malagasy 
Ahtiago 


176 224 329 
358 

296 316 
306 329 . 


Ceram 
Gani 
Java 
Kandayan 


329 
317 
224 

343 




Mysot 

Teor 

Waigiou 


306 
301 
317 




u-o 

Malay 179 328 330 

341 

Malagasy 179 216 267 
273 278 294 
320 334 343 

Amblaw 316 

Batumerah 317 

Bolanghitam 278 317 

Bugi 328 

Dyak 317 328 


Gah 

Ilocan 

Kayan 

Lariko 

Liang 

Macassar 

Magindano 

Massaratty 

Matabello 

Mayapo 


317 
294 

317 
317 
317 
216 

317 
306 

317 
306 


360 
328 344 

306 328 


Pangasinan 

Pampangas 

Salayer 

Saparua 

Sula 

Sulu 

Tagalog 

Teor 

Togean Ids 

Wahai 


329 
321 
330 
317 
306 

294 
267 321 

317 
321 
317 


341 


u-6 
Malay 


262 














u-i; 

Malagasy 


335 














u-o 

Malay 


226 233 262 














u-we 
Awaiya 


330 


Batumerah 


330 




Caimarian 


330 




u-m 
Amblaw 
Cajeli 


330 
330 


Massaratty 
Mayapo 


330 
330 




Morella 


330 




u-yo 
Bicol 


330 














u-yu 
Malay 


301 


















NO. 










ng-g 

Malay 


332 


Ilocan 


332 










ng-h 

Malagasy 


336 














ng-M 

Malagasy 

Batumerah 


169 213 246 
274 308 346 
350 
350 


Caimarian 
Lariko 
Liang 
Morella 


350 
350 
350 
350 




Saparua 

Teor 

Wahai 


350 
350 
350 




ng-w/i 
Satawal 


350 














ng-M/ 

Chamorri 


350 


K 












k-ck 
Malay 


224 














k-g 

Malay 

Bicol 


178 225 227 
297 299 302 
214 


Java 
Menado 


225 
300 


299 


Nicobar 
Tagalog 


300 

214 




k-h 

Malagasy 


249 258 297 
301 302 353 


Teor 


305 


306 









SAWAIORI MATERIAL IN INDONESIA. 



157 



k-y 

Java 

k-ng 

Malay 

k-wgfe 
Malay 



224 



181 



171 



k— 

Ahtiago 300 

Awaiya 300 

Batumerah 300 

Caimarian 300 306 

Gani 300 



l-d 

Malay 260 261 272 

334 335 336 

364 
Malagasy 297 311 327 

348 350 364 



H 



Togeanlds 308 
272 



l-kl 
Malay 



Timor 

Malay 

1— 

Sulu 



n-h 

Kayan 

n-kn 
Kayan 

n-Z 



284 
220 
350 

328 
259 



Macassar 328 
296 



n-ng 
Malay 



n-ti] 

Dyak 328 



n — 

Ilocan 



290 



h-h 

Bolanghitam 278 

h-d 
Ilocan 339 

Java 278 339 



h-j 



Java 



171 



Lariko 300 

Liang 300 

Matabello 300 306 

Morella 300 306 

Mysot 306 

L. 

Baju 335 

Baliyon 335 

Ilocan 334 

Kawi 334 



Java 272 

Wahai 312 350 



Tagalog 350 
N. 



Malay 



278 



Sassac 343 

Kisa 284 

Macassar 328 

H. 

Matabello 352 

Kaili 278 

Silong 339 



Tagalog 353 



Saparua 300 

Teluti 300 

Tidore 300 

Wahai 300 306 



Macassar 327 
Matu 261 

Sulu 335 



Tog can Ids 284 



Wahai 317 

Tagalog 259 



Matabello 278 



158 



h-/ 

Amblaw 

h-ndr 
Malagasy 

h-ng 

Kisa 

h-nr 

Bugi 

h-r 

Malagasy 

h-s 

Malay 

Ahtiago 

Amboyna 

Awaiya 

Bugi 

Buru 

Caimarian 



THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



h-t 



Satawal 



Macassar 



278 

47 
278 

47 
278 

352 
352 
352 
352 
352 
352 
352 

352 

352 



Ceram 352 

Chamorri 352 

Galela 352 

Gani 352 

Guaham 352 

Ilocan 323 

Java 352 



Kawi 


352 


Kayan 


278 


Sanguir 


352 


Tidore 


352 


Tobo 


352 


Togean Ids 


352 



Sunda 



352 



s-ch 
Malay 

s-d 
Malay 



s-S 



Malay 



s-h 



Malay 
Malagasy 



Malay 

S-M 

Malagasy 

s-ng 

Togean Ids 



Malagasy 



s-t 



Malay 



t-ch 
Malay 

t-d 
Malay 
Gah 



H 



Galela 



45 

47 298 338 
132 



233 337 
169 223 



341 
344 
298 
298 
170 225 

237 268 



357 358 
329 



352 



Awaiya 180 

Java 342 



Malagasy 34 1 



Java 298 

Malagasy 239 
T. 

Sunda 352 



Java 357 

Matabello 329 



Kayan 
Saparua 



Java 



Gani 



352 



Timor 
Tobo 



Tidore 



263 
180 



225 



329 
329 



352 



SAWAIORI MATERIAL, IN INDONESIA, 159 



t-h 



Satawal 


294 








Malagasy 


358 


Macassar 352 


Tobo 


217 


t-k 
Malay 
Caimarian 


225 
329 


Java 324 

Kisa 318 323 324 


Teor 


350 


t-m 
Gah 


217 


Mysot 217 






t-n 

Java 
Kayan 


346 
346 


Massaratty 2 1 7 


Mayapo 


217 


t-ndr 

Malagasy 


238 








t-nch 
Batak 


329 









t-nt 

Malay 216 222 256 

Malagasy 256 



Macassar 329 
Pangasinan 329 



t-s 



Malay 225 247 329 

Malagasy 324 



Buru 



352 



t-tj 



Bugi 



350 



t-ts 



Malagasy 329 

t-2 

Malagasy 47 

t— 

Malay 47 

Malagasy 47 

Amblaw 217 

Awaiya 217 
Bolanghitam 217 



Bouton 217 

Ahtiago 217 

Bugi 47 

Caimarian 217 

M. 



Malay 

m-h 

Tagalog 

m-lm 
Menado 

tn-p 

Malay 



224 315 327 Malagasy 172 

327 

313 

325 



m-v 

Malagasy 327 



m-w 

Java 



224 



m — 

Visayas 327 



Sambiwa 329 
Sanguir 329 



Cajeli 
Lariko 
Liang 
Sanguir 



217 
217 
217 
352 



160 



THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



v-v 

Malagasy 307 

v-k 

Vaiqueno East 291 

v-b 

Malay 310 

v-/ 

Malagasy 281 

y-p 

Malay 281 

v-w 

Malay 307 310 

Ahtiago 291 

Allor 291 

Amblaw 291 

Awaiya 291 

Batumerah 291 

Buru 291 

Caimarian 291 

Cajeli 291 

Ceram 291 



Baju 



291 



Malay 



291 



Dorey 


291 


Gani 


291 


Liang 


291 


Massaratty 


291 


Mayapo 


291 


Morella 


291 


Mysot 


291 


Rotti 


291 


Salibabo 


291 


Champa 


291 



Saparua 

Silong 

Solor 

Sulu 

Teluti 

Teor 

Togean Ids 

Visayas 

Waigiou 



291 
291 
291 
291 
291 
291 
291 
291 
291 



N 



F. 



Malagasy 

Ahtiago 

Ceram 

Gah 



f-b 



Malay 



Malagasy 

Amblaw 

Baju 

Bicol 

Borneo 

Bouton 

f-ch 
Bouton 

f-h 
Malay 
Malagasy 
Awaiya 
Caimarian 
Kisa 

f-nt 
Bicol 

f-mb 
Cajeli 



233 235 254 
259 273 296 
329 (ph) 
329 (ph) 
329 



174 175 220 

222 246 272 

273 291 292 

294 360 

273 314 

360 

360 

292 

360 

290 



259 



215 

213 329 
290 

290 360 
259 



214 
290 



Massaratty 
Matabello 
Mayapo 
Satawal 



Bugi 

Cajeli 

Gah 

Ilocan 

Kayan 

Liang 

Macassar 

Madura 

Menado 



Sulu 



290 329 360 
259 329 (ph) 
290 329 360 
294 



360 
360 
290 
2go 294 

294 
350 

290 294 
290 
360 



Lariko 290 

Liang 290 

Madura 290 

Manatolo 259 

Morella 290 360 



214 



Sulu 290 

Teor 36o 

Timor 284 

Tobo 329 



Molucca 284 

Salayer 2 go 360 

Salibabo 290 360 

Sanguir 329 360 

Silong 2 go 294 

Sulu 294 

Togean Ids 2g2 294 

Visayas 292 

Waigiou 290 



Sanguir 

Sula 

Teluti 

Timor 

Wahai 



290 (how). 

259 

2 go 360 

329 

360 



Tagalog 2 14 



SAWAIORI MATERIAIy IN INDONESIA. 



161 



f-p 



Malay 



Beu 
Bicol 



170 223 245 
287 288 296 
329 

243 
214 



Gani 

Java 

kayan 

Magindano 

Mj'-sot 



290 
288 
259 
259 
290 



Pan5;fasinan 329 
Sambivva 329 
Sapama 290 
Tagalog 259 287 
Visayas 287 



Brissi West 259 



i-v 



Malagasy 246 273 282 
288 293 294 



Savo 



259 



Ahtiago 290 360 



Vaiqueno East 259 



Kayan 



273 



f-w 
















Bouton 


290 




Java 


272 


273 283 


Magindano 


294 


Bugi 


292 






290 


360 


Savu 


294 


Gah 


360 




Kisa 


273 


282 283 


Teor 


290 


f— 

Batak 


329 




Macassar 


329 




Saparua 


259 


Batumerah 


290 




Salayer 


290 




Teluti 


290 


Caimarian 


329 




1 


P. 








v-P 






J 








Malay 


183 217 


241 


Basakrama 


, 266 


279 


Magindano 


250 




247 250 


279 


Bicol 


250 




Morella 


190 




289 




Bugi 


279 




Saru 


171 


Malagasy 


179 250 




Java 


289 




Tagalog 


250 


Amboyna 


190 




Kawi 


250 




Teor 


285 


Baliyon 


250 




Macassar 


279 








p-6 
Malay 


45 171 


176 


Ilocan 


284 




Solor 


284 




178 221 


241 


Java 


171 


285 


Tagalog 


45 




286 




Kaili 


284 




Togean Ids 


284 


Malagasy 


218 




Salayer 


285 




Tringanu 


284 


Batavia 


243 














v-f 
















Malagasy 


175 




Lobo 


284 




Togean Ids 


284 


Aru 


284 




Rotti 


284 








p-w6 
















Malagasy 


218 














p-i> 

Malay 


128 284 




Malagasy 


171 








p-w 
















Gilolo 


284 














P— 
















Kisa 


284 




Magindano 


284 




Utanata 


284 


Frontal Abrasion: 














Malay 


47 177 


258 


Gah 


275 : 


290 


Pampangas 328 




290 291 


323 


Java 


290 




Salayer 


217 


Malagasy 


177 325 




Kayan 


344 




Sanguir 


217 


Ahtiago 


217 290 




Massaratty 


350 




Saparua 


217 


Amblaw 


217 




Matu 


350 




Sulu 


290 


Awaiya 


217 




Menado 


217 




Teluti 


217 


Borneo 


350 




Morella 


217 




Teor 


217 


Cajeli 


290 




Mysot 


290 




Wahai 


217 


Dyak 


312 




Nicobar 


300 




Waigiou 


290 



162 



THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



Frontal Accretion: 



Malay 


79 170 


175 


Gani 


312 


Salibabo 


312 






176 241 


278 


Java 


274 278 321 


Sandol 


278 






304 321 : 


337 




342 


Saparua 


180 




Malagasy 


175 




Lariko 


278 


Silong 


291 




Ahtiago 


305 




Liang 


278 


Sula 


278 




Awaiya 


180 




Macassar 


327 


Tagalog 


274 


295 321 


Baju 


278 




Magindano 


274 313 321 


Teor 


278 




Bicol 


274 




Menado 


300 


Ternati 


276 




Borneo 


300 




Morella 


278 


Tidore 


295 


300 


Bolanghitam 217 




Pampangas 


321 


Togean Ids 


321 




Bouton 


305 306 


313 


Pani 


295 


Visayas 


274 




Galela 


278 














Terminal Abrasion: 














Malay 


79 132 


170 


Gani 


290 312 


Kar Nicobar 


324 




175 176 


270 


11 oca n 


267 


Sirang 


312 






289 299 


302 


Java 


299 357 


Tagalog 


214 






304 357 




Jobi 


312 


Teor 


306 


350 


Baliyon 


250 269 




Macassar 


350 


Ternati 


276 




Bicol 


214 




Mayapo 


329 


Tobo 


329 




Bugi 


350 




Mysot 


217 290 306 


Waigiou 


290 




Dorey 


312 






312 324 








Gah 


312 














Tertnitial Accretion: 














Malay 


128 171 


177 


Borneo 


300 


Matabello 


259 


278 300 




178 179 


185 


Bouton 


217 257 300 




316 


317 324 




222 223 


226 




305 312 


Matu 


267 


277 305 




227 228 


237 


Brissi West 


259 




336 


344 




239 245 


247 


Bual 


278 


Mayapo 300 317 350 360 




248 250 


255 


Bugi 


267 274 277 


Menado 


300 






256 260 


266 




279 308 352 


Molucca 


284 






274 278 


279 


Caimarian 


278 291 300 


Morella 


190 


291 300 




284 291 


298 




306 330 350 




313 


330 




300 305 308 




360 


Mysot 


291 






3" 317 


323 


Cajeli 


217 278 290 


Pampangas 


; 277 


278 327 




327 328 


329 




313 317 360 




328 


353 




331 332 


335 


Ceram 


278 329 


Pani 


295 






341 352 


353 


Dorey 


291 


Rotti 


278 






359 362 


364 


Dyak 


317 324 328 


Salayer 


330 




Malagasy 


171 177 


179 


Gah 


278 290 300 


Salibabo 


257 


278 




223 235 


238 




316 317 324 


Salu 


278 






239 250 


255 




329 330 352 


Samb^wa 


343 






258 260 


267 


Gani 


291 300 317 


Sandol 


278 






273 274 


278 


GUolo 


284 


Sanguir 


217 


352 360 




298 302 


308 


Guaham 


317 


Saparua 


180 


300 335 




314 320 


335 


Ilocan 


277 284 300 


Silong 


290 


300 323 




338 341 


353 




323 332 334 




324 


339 




355 362 364 




339 342 


Solor 


284 




Ahtiago 


217 300 


306 


Java 


171 267 274 


Sulu 


267 


308 317 




317 324 


329 




277 298 308 




335 






330 360 






316 339 350 


Tagalog 185 259 


267 274 


Amblaw 


217 278 


300 




352 364 




277 


295 308 




317 330 


360 


Kawi 


250 352 


Teluti 2 1 ; 


: 291 


300 317 


Amboyna 


190 




Kayan 


259 277 278 




324 


330 360 


Aru 


284 






308 317 328 


Teor 


278 


285 300 


Awaiya 


257 278 


291 




344 




305 


313 317 




300 317 


330 


Kisa 


259 276 278 




324 


360 


Baju 


305 335 






312 313 324 


Tidore 


278 


300 


Baliyon 


308 335 




Lampong 


343 


Timor 


278 


284 


Basakrama 


L 250 279 


350 


Lariko 


300 


Tobo 


217 


278 


Batavia 


243 




Liang 


300 313 


Togean Ids 


! 278 


284 


Batumerah 278 290 


291 


Lobo 


284 


Tringanu 


284 






300 313 


316 


Macassar 


216 267 279 


Utanata 


284 






324 330 


350 




353 


Visayas 


185 


274 278 


Beu 


243 




Magindanc 


' 259 274 284 




317 


327 


Bicol 


274 330 






308 317 340 


Wahai 278 300 


306 317 


Bolanghitam 2 1 7 


317 


Massaratty 300 350 360 




324 


350 360 



SAWAIORI MATERIAIy IN INDONESIA. 



163 



Infixion: 




Amblaw 


300 


Awaiya 


278 


Baju 


278 301 


Basakrama 


250 


Batumerah 


278 


Bual 


278 


Bugi 


277 


Caimarian 


278 


Cajeli 


278 


Ceram 


278 


Ende 


278 


Galela 


278 


Metathesis: 




Malay 


316 


Malagasy 


316 


Ahtiago 


330 


Baliyon 


250 


Bicol 


250 



Gani 


278 


Salibabo 


278 


Ilocan 


277 


Salu 


278 


Java 


267 283 


Sandol 


278 


Kisa 


282 283 


Sulu 


267 335 


Lariko 


278 


Tagalog 


277 


Liang 


278 


Teor 


278 291 


Massaratty 


329 


Tidore 


278 


Matu 


277 


Timor 


278 


Mayapo 


329 


Tobo 


27S 


Morella 


278 


Togean Ids 


278 


Pampangas 


278 


Visayas 


278 


Rotti 


278 


Wahai 


278 


Ilocan 


346 


Sulu 


330 


Java 


316 


Tagalog 


250 


Kawi 


250 


Teluti 


330 


Macassar 


290 


Teor 


291 


Silong 


290 


Wahai 


330 



Next we shall compare the mutation series of the consonants in 
Indonesia with the variants observed in the Pacific areas as set 
forth in the tables in each of the two preceding chapters. The 
results of such comparison fall under the several following classes : 











Indonesian only. 










ng-h 


k—ngk 


n-kn 


h-wg 


s-d 


S-Mg 


t-ndr 


t-ts 


m-lm 


m — 


ng—nh 


l-kl 


n-nj 


h-nr 


s-g 


t-ch 


t-nch 


t-z 


tn-p 


f-ch 


k-ch 


l-s 


n-l 


h-r 


s-i 


i-S 


t-ni 


m-b 


m-w 


f—>n 


k-y 


a-h 


iy-ndr 


S-ch 


s-n 


t-h 


i-ij 


m-li 







k-ng 



Indonesian-Polynesian. 



Indonesian-Melanesian. 



ng-g 

ng-nj 
k-h 


i-y 

n — 
h-i 


\\-t 
h-rf 
S-r 


s-t t-M \-f V — 
t-d m-v v-p i-mb 
t-^n \-b 

Indonesian-Melanesian-Polynesian. 


f-s 
P-/ 


p-mb 


p-w 

p— 


ng-n 

kg 

k— 


\-d 
\-n 
1— 


n-l 

n-ng 

h-h 


\\-s t-j t — v-w 

h— t-s \-h f-b 
s-h t-k 


f-h 
i-p 


f-v 


f— 

p-b 



We shall forward our understanding of whatever interrelation 
may exist among these three several language groups by a more 
detailed examination of each of these classes. If there be any valid- 
ity in the theory that the three families are descendants of a com- 
mon parent we should look for confirmatory evidence in the amount 
of their concord in mutation principles. This can be made to appear 
only in a detailed examination. 

In Polynesia we have seen the palatals to be subject to but slight 
derangement. In the case of ng the more frequent mutations are 
of the form ng-n and ng — . Only the former extends through all 
these families. In Polynesia it is normal in Hawaii, the western 



164 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Marquesas, and Sikayana, sporadic in Rotuma. In Melanesia it is 
not normal (with a possible exception in the case of Santo); it is 
traceable through the languages of that area rather as a quality 
with which a certain few loan words are endowed. In Indonesia it 
is seen to be a quality of talinga (350) ; in Malagasy only is it suffi- 
ciently frequent to be considered as a speech endowment ; the Mala- 
gasy words in which this mutation is found are all identifiable as 
Polynesian material, and several of them are carried with the same 
modification through Melanesia. 

In Polynesia the mutation ng-k is normal in the eastern Mar- 
quesas, sporadic in one instance in Viti. In Melanesia its place is 
taken by ng-g, a word quality. In Indonesia it is found but once. 

ng-w; is highly problematical in the sole instance in which it is 
found in Aneityum. Its presence in the Indonesian rests upon 
Tregear's citation talinga (350) ear Chamorri talanja, against which 
we set talanga from Fritz's Chamorro dictionary. 

ng-nh, resting on longo (336) sound Malagasy rohona, is not cer- 
tainly Sawaiori. 

ng-nh in talinga (350) ear Satawal talinhe is a good identification 
but the mutation is without parallel. 

K. 

In Polynesia the principal variation of k is to extinction, this 
being normal in Samoa, Hawaii, and Tahiti, and not unknown in 
several other languages. In Melanesia it is found widely extended 
as a word quality; in Bululaha, Saa, Ugi, and Ulawa it appears 
as a speech endowment, these being in the region of crop colonies 
in the Solomons. In Indonesia it appears as a word quality of but 
two vocables. 

Of the k-g mutation we have record of but a single instance, 
sporadic in the Paumotu. In Melanesia this is of frequent occur- 
rence and in many languages it is normal. In Indonesia it is infre- 
quent outside of the Malay, a speech endowment none the less 
though sluggish; the Malay and Javanese words in which it occurs 
are Sawaiori, those in other languages doubtful. 

\i-h is of rare occurrence in Melanesia. In Indonesia it is satis- 
factorily identified in Teor and in some, though not in all, of its 
occurrences in Malagasy. 

k-ng is of rare occurrence in Polynesia, equally rare in Melanesia, 
and its single appearance in the Malay is not a wholly satisfactory 
identification. 

k-ngfe practically corresponds to the k-ngg found four times in 
Viti, rarely in Melanesia. In Indonesia it is found in but two 
vocables, each in two languages. 

k-cfe and k-; are not satisfactorily identified. 



SAWAIORI MATERIAI. IN INDONESIA, 165 

L. 

Grouping 1 and r because of the frequently mentioned impracti- 
cability of establishing a stem independence in our present data, 
we note that in Polynesia the most frequent mutation is the extinc- 
tion. This becomes most strongly marked in the Marquesas. It 
is infrequent in Melanesia. In Indonesia it appears in Sulu and 
Tagalog in the same word, talinga (350) ear, and in the Togean 
Islands in pula (284) to shine, at least the \-y mutation noted in 
that instance is a close approximation to extinction. 

The \-n mutation in Polynesia seems more a word quality, for it 
appears in two languages each for data 100, 154, 312, 313; these 
removed from the reckoning, wefind itonly five times, all in Nukuoro. 
In Melanesia it is rare. In Indonesia it is found in pula (284) to 
shine Timor funan the moon, twice in Wahai; these three words 
are included in the list of those similarly affected in Polynesia. 

The long leap from lingual semivowel to mute of the same series 
is found but once in Polynesia (1-^ Mangareva 287) and once in Viti 
{\-nd 287). In Melanesia it is scarcely more frequent. In Indo- 
nesia \-t does not occur; \-d appears sporadically in several lan- 
guages, one instance (350) containing the greater number of its 
Melanesian occurrences as well. This mutation is most marked in 
Malay (seven times) and Malagasy (five times). Of the Malay 
instances but two (260, 334) are open to any doubt, of the Malagasy 
but two (348, 350) are really convincing. The \-j mutation, really 
a t-variation, is found but once in Indonesia, three times in two lan- 
guages of the New Hebrides, and not at all in Polynesia, is is noted 
in a single instance in Malay and very unsatisfactory. \-kl, noted 
once in Malay and Java, is rather an accretion than a mutation. 

N. 

The variants of the three nasals follow two cleavage planes, the 
vertical in series, the horizontal across all series. In the case of 
ng we have observed as well ng-w and ng-fe. In Polynesia n shows 
this horizontal movement only backward, n-wg, and this only in 
Moriori and once in Viti. In Melanesia n-ng is quite widely spread, 
affecting several vocables and most of them repeated in several lan- 
guages; here is found in one instance the forward n-w mutation. 
In Indonesia the n-ng mutation occurs once each in Malay, Kisa, 
and Tagalog, the Kisa instance doubtful. 

In Polynesia the only vertical mutation is upward in the series 
to the semivowel, to / in a single word in two languages, to r in 
another word in two other languages. This mutation in Melanesia 
has a wide extent in the case of nifo (259) tooth, and is less widely 
found in three other of our data. In Indonesia it is found once each 
in Macassar, Sassac, and Wahai, the latter affecting the same vocable 
as in Alite. 



166 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The extinction of n, found once in Marina, is highly doubtful in 
the single Indonesian case in fafine (290) woman Ilocan habai. 

The n-Z in Kayan, n-nj in Dyak and Macassar, and n-y in Pam- 
pangas are found only in the vocable (328) which in Macassar has 
also afforded an instance of n-l and gives n-ny in Melanesia. The 
single instance of k-^w is of uncertain nature. 

H. 

The foregoing tables record a considerable number of mutation 
forms for the aspiration in Indonesia. For the mutation h-s, no less 
than twenty- two languages afford examples; yet on closer inspec- 
tion it will appear that in the latter case but three vocables are at 
all involved, and that six vocables only are involved in the whole 
range of mutation of the aspirate. We feel justified, therefore, in 
regarding this as partaking more of word quality than of speech 
endowment. In Polynesia the aspiration has all but vanished; 
comparison of mutant forms, therefore, would be futile, the only 
forms common to the three families being h-.y and extinction. Mela- 
nesia, in strong contrast with each family, shows a marked ten- 
dency to employ the aspiration in its proper function; over an equal 
and interlacing area it follows the h-.y mutation. Common to Indo- 
nesia and Melanesia are these, h-t, h-d, and h-;, the two latter being 
variants upon the primal h-t mutation; the vocables involved in 
these changes in Indonesia are similarly involved in Melanesia, which 
has a few in addition of its own. Mutations peculiar to Indonesia 
are the following : h-Z, h — , h-w, an upward movement in the series, 
discoverable only in the two vocables recorded in our data under 
numbers 47 and 278; regarding ndr, as so frequently, in the light 
of an effort to compass the r grassey^, h-ndr (Malagasy 47) falls into 
this group. In Kisa 278 h-ng is explicable as the upward shift h-w 
(which is nowhere discoverable), upon which is added the rearward 
shift n-ng; confirmation being found in our record of the latter 
mutation in that speech. 

S. 

The sibilant is better retained in Indonesia than in Polynesia, a 
facility which it shares with Melanesia. The mutation common to 
the three families is s-^, normal to at least eight Polynesian lan- 
guages, far less frequent in Melanesia, and in Indonesia affecting 
but seven vocables in six languages. Of the mutations common to 
Indonesia and Melanesia, s-r (found in Malagasy and Java 298) 
rests dotibtfully on Tanna 337; and s-Z is found in Alite and Wango 
in the same 337. Wholly Indonesian are s-ch, s-j, s-d, but they 
group naturally with s-t. s-n (Malagasy 344) lacks confirmation. 
s-ng (Togean 298), however, seems quite feasible, s-g (Malay 132) 
is very doubtful. 



SAWAIORI MATERIAL IN INDONESIA. 167 



Common to the three famiUes are the mutations t-s and extinc- 
tion. The former is quite rare in Pol3mesia, not particularly fre- 
quent in Melanesia, and in Indonesia involves but five vocables in 
four languages, one of these being similarly affected in four of the 
Melanesian languages. 

t-k is the rule in Hawaii, rapidly becoming normal in Samoa, well 
established in Melanesia, and somewhat common in Indonesia, t-j 
is well established in Tonga; Melanesia shows it in Baki and Male- 
kula; its use in Indonesia is but slight; with it should be grouped 
the t-ch of Malay, t-tj of Bugi, and t-nch of Batak. 

For the extinction of t we muster but a single example in Poly- 
nesia (Marquesas 350), quite a respectable number of instances in 
Melanesia, but its Indonesian record is almost exclusively written 
in 217, a doubtful case as will be seen in the discussion of the note 
thereupon. 

In the forms common to Indonesia and Melanesia t-d is the sim- 
plest variant, rather widely (including t-nd) disseminated in Mela- 
nesia, in Indonesia involving but three vocables in six languages. 
t-m in both families rests wholly upon the doubtful 217. t-w in 
Melanesia is found only in New Ireland 329; in Indonesia it rests 
soundly on 346 (Java and Kayan) and doubtfully on 217. 

Of forms wholly Indonesian, t-nt is not infrequent and is under- 
stood as a nasal reinforcement of the mute, t-ts and t-z are met 
with but once apiece, both in Malagasy, t-h (once in Satawal) may 
be regarded as a secondary mutation of the t-s hitherto noted. For 
t-ndr we find but one example, in the Malagasy, yet it is quite 
satisfactory, t-g, a violent mutation, rests upon a single vocable 
(352) in Galela, Gani, and Tidore. 

M. 

The mutations of m need scarcely engage our attention in this 
rapid review. Polynesia affords but a single instance ; in Indonesia 
but five vocables are involved ; even in Melanesian crudity of speech 
m is almost constant. 

V. 

The v-mutations common to all three families are \-w and \-h. 
In Polynesia \-w has become normal in Maori, Hawaii, and Viti; 
in Melanesia it is satisfactorily established over a wide area or sev- 
eral areas interlaced by this mutation; in Indonesia it rests almost 
wholly on vai (291), a word quality at best. The Indonesian \-h 
rests wholly upon this vai, in a single instance ; it is found in Mela- 
nesia in but one vocable in two languages; our Polynesian data 
afford us only three instances. 



168 THS POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Of the forms common to Indonesia and Melanesia v-/ is scantily 
represented in either ; v-6 in a solitary Malay instance is rather more 
common in Melanesia; \-p, once in Malay, occurs in but two vocables 
in Melanesia; and V extinct is represented in Melanesia by one 
vocable in two languages and in Indonesia by the somewhat doubt- 
ful Malay and Champa identifications of vai. 

F. 

In Polynesia the most common f-mutations are i-h, normal in 
Hawaii, Mangareva, Maori, and Tongarewa; and f extinct, normal 
in Bukakuka, Mangaia, and Rarotonga. In Indonesia i-h involves 
but six vocables in fifteen languages, in Melanesia it is more frequent. 
The extinction of f in Indonesia is found in four vocables in seven 
languages, in Melanesia in eight vocables in eight languages. 

i-h is met with but twice in Polynesia; including i-mb, it is rather 
more common in Melanesia, is frequent in Malay and, with narrower 
application, quite generally extended over Indonesia. Closely asso- 
ciated with this is i-p, twice appearing in a single vocable in Poly- 
nesia, widely extended in several Melanesian instances, frequent in 
Malay, and of considerable extent in other Indonesian languages. 
i-v is normal in Viti ; in all the rest of Polynesia involves but five 
vocables in eight languages ; is very common in Melanesia ; in Indo- 
nesia is found several times in Malagasy and rarely in Malaysia. 
i-w, once met with in two Polynesian languages, is very common 
in Melanesia ; in Indonesia is found several times in Java and rarely 
in seven other languages, f-j is common to Indonesia and Melanesia, 
but is rare in each, i-ch is peculiar to Indonesia and rests upon a 
single and satisfactory example, Bouton 259. The i-m mutation 
(214) is most uncertain. 

P. 

The only mutation common to the three families is p-6. For this 
Polynesia yields but few examples; including p-w6 it is by far the 
most frequent Melanesian variant; it is frequent in Malay and nar- 
rowly extends to ten other languages of Indonesia, p-/ appears in 
but a single Melanesian example; in a single vocable it appears in 
four languages of the Malay Archipelago and doubtfully once in 
Malagasy. p-T; has a somewhat wide distribution in Melanesia, but 
is rare in Indonesia, p-w appears once in Gilolo and in the same 
vocable in the New Hebrides, in another in Buka. The extinction 
of p involves the same vocable in three Indonesian and one Mela- 
nesian languages. 

In the Indonesian check-list I have distinguished in bold-faced 
type the vocables which appear in Malayan tongues with the quality 
factor of recognizability by the Samoan, of which I have made such 



SAWAIORI MATERIAIv IN INDONESIA. 169 

use in treating of the Melanesian languages. Beyond this record 
of quality I hesitate to tread upon a field already so well cultivated 
by its own specialists; yet in so far as this area is involved in the 
erection of a Malayo-Polynesian speech family it is a fair field for 
the Sawaiori student. Since we have now brought one ethnic swarm 
of Polynesian voyagers back to the threshold of Indonesia at two 
doorways respectively, and have made it plain that the later Tonga- 
fiti swarm has found its exit elsewhere than at these identified por- 
tals, we are amply justified in our examination of Indonesia so long 
as our search is restricted to the replevin of Sawaiori material. 

The prominent numerals in the preceding list make it wholly mani- 
fest that the Polynesian and the Indonesian have at some place and 
at some time been in intimate contact. That this place of inter- 
mingling was not the Pacific is equally manifest, for the Pacific 
languages contain no elements of Indonesian origin save this scanty 
collection picked out of Polynesian and Melanesian. A second line 
of proof lies in the consistent tradition of the Polynesians that they 
came over seas on a long voyage from the west. 

Restricted, then, to Indonesia as the place of mingling, we must 
first examine the history of the two races. Of the Malay race we 
know, for their records of their own history show it, that Indonesia 
was not the place of their origin. Upon it they are intruders; from 
the Asiatic main they came by the easy path of the Malay Peninsula. 
So far as the traditions of Java can be reduced to a measure of 
synchronism, we can fix Java as uninhabited by Malayans about 
400 B. c, and a century later settled by 20,000 families emigrating 
from northwest India under Arishtan Shar and dispersing to Mala- 
bar, the Maldives and Madagascar; a large emigration from the 
Panjab to the archipelago between 200 and 150 b. c. ; and by 125 
B. c. the archipelago overrun with these races. 

As concerns the Sawaiori we lack all but the most indefinite infor- 
mation before their sojourn in Indonesia. We do not regard them 
as autochthons, for their traditions call for a migration yet earlier. 
But we are fairly entitled to regard them as in possession of the 
islands from Sumatra to the Philippines at the time of the Malaysian 
swarm. All indicia point to their retreat before the swarm advanc- 
ing upon their western flank, the only lines of retreat open to them 
being in the eastern quadrants. 

It is difficult for us to arrive at the comprehension of the expulsion 
of a race from its home. We have to go back to rude times to find 
ground for the belief that such things can be, to the swarming of 
the Huns upon Europe reported to us in the testimony of eye- 
witnesses and sufferers at the bloody hands of Attila. Without 
detail we have accepted, with dull imaginations and no great com- 
prehension, the westward movement of the Aryan races. 



170 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Such movements we denominate ethnic swarms; a convenient 
designation ! no hesitation has been felt in employing it in the fore- 
going chapters. But in denomination do we really describe? In 
calling the movem.ent of the Sawaiori an ethnic swarm do we get 
sight of the nature of the movement ? 

In the hydraulic physics of geography Niagaras are rare; few 
streams go tumbling over cliffs in a mass ; the course of the greatest 
rivers is marked by many an eddy, many a backwater, many a pool 
where motion scarcely appears. It is onl)^ in the errant fancy of 
the rmiaway child that tired feet on a weary way will at last bring 
him to a real jumping-off place. A stream of human migration can 
only flow in succeeding waves; many an eddy current will bear on 
a new destination. 

Particularly must such have been the case vfith the expulsion of 
the Sawaiori before the Malay. In bulk and in the end it did indeed 
become a great ethnic swarm. In detail and in the performance it 
could have been no more than affairs of outposts. 

The genius of Polynesian culture has nowhere as yet touched the 
idea of a national life. Samoa is almost singular in the possession 
of a collective name for its archipelago; the Samoan, the Viti, the 
Marquesan, and the Maori are alone in the possession of national 
names. Civic righteousness goes not beyond the village; village 
does not go to the relief of village in distress; there is even now 
nowhere a nation to arise in imity to set a bold and united front 
against an invader. Each tiny village makes its own defense. Vic- 
torious it holds its ground until the next attack; defeated it is a 
sufficiently m^obile unit to set forth in search of a new home. We 
must remember that such were the conditions of the Sawaiori in 
the archipelago when the Malay in a similar wise were advancing 
upon them. 

Under such conditions there are three main possibilities. A Sawai- 
ori village resists attack after attack, maintains its good defense, 
retains the little islet or the pleasant bay of some larger island which 
is its home, is surroxmded by settlements of the alien race, in time 
peaceful relations arise. A Sawaiori village realizes that resistance 
is futile, puts out to sea, seeks a new home. A Sawaiori village, 
debellated in some sudden onfall or by the crush of overwhelming 
force, goes down in defeat, and the sole survivors, the noncombatant 
women and children, are incorporated with the conquerors. 

The second event accounts for our wanderers over sea, those whose 
voyages we have traced through Melanesia and into their present 
Polynesian homes. The first and third events are to account for 
such speech community as may be found in Indonesia and Polynesia. 

It is not a great commimity. There are very few items which 
are not included in the data here assembled. See what a small basis 



SAWAIORI MATERIAI. IN INDONESIA. 171 

it forms for the erection of a Malayo-Polynesian family. In the 
Malay itself, the speech of which we have the longest record and 
the fullest comprehension, there are but 75 vocables safely identified 
as common in these data to the two families. Making the most gen- 
erous allowance, a lavish allowance, for the vocables which evaded 
compilation under the conditions of this research, we can only thus 
doubtfully find a community of 150 words. 

We are to consider the source of this petty common vocabulary. 
In the analysis of the possibilities it may have been borrowed from 
Indonesia by the Sawaiori during their joint occupancy of that area ; 
it may have been delivered to each from a common source. It may 
have been contributed by the Sawaiori to their Malaysian conquer- 
ors, by such of the Sawaiori as persisted as inclusions in the Indo- 
nesian settlement, it being well understood that sooner or later they 
were absorbed in the alien culture and outside this linguistic record 
have left no mark, or at best a scarcely measurable trace. 

If the Malay peoples advancing upon the Sawaiori peoples whom 
they found in possession of the islands of the Indian Archipelago 
forced their vocables upon the folk whom it was their pleasure and 
to their interest to scatter before them, then we are at an utter loss 
to comprehend the nature of such intercourse, for it is not in one 
generation nor yet in three that a people adopts any considerable 
element of an alien speech. Furthermore, if the Sawaiori borrowed 
directly from the Indonesian, incomprehensible as such a contin- 
gency is, we should expect to find the greatest range of variety, the 
widest divergence from phonetic principles, among the several divi- 
sions of the borrowing race, the closest uniformity among the lenders. 
Yet in the case of each of these seventy-five vocables here discussed 
the Polynesian keeps the word practically without alteration; in Indo- 
nesia the range of variety is enormous. The nature of the Indonesian 
variety is plain to see in the phonetic tables heretofore drafted. 

We note three types, and careful study of the tables will show 
that all variants fall under one or other of these types. 

First : phonetic variation recognizable as a Polynesian type. This 
may mean that dialectic variation in the Sawaiori material existed 
at the time when the two races had the word in common, a very 
possible contingency. It may mean that in the word itself was a 
disposition or motion toward a certain type of mutation which was 
carried over with the loan, a contingency almost impossible, for we 
have yet to learn of an instinct in the word ; the Sprachgeist resides 
in the speaker. 

Second: incorporation upon the common stem of foi-mative ele- 
ments distinctively Malaysian. This sort of thing is very common 
in all speech, markedly characteristic of our own English in its word- 
pilfering from every source. 



172 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Third : modification of the common stem by mutation unusual to 
the Indonesian phonetic and probably representing the resultant of 
an effort to reproduce foreign sounds difficult to the borrower's vocal 
organs. 

Similarly we should expect to find a word delivered by the Malay- 
sians to the Sawaiori diminishing in frequency along the wide eastern 
extent of the migration, practically constant in Indonesia itself. 
The answer thereto is patent in the check-list : Polynesia holds each 
of these words practically to its utmost east ; it is Indonesia which 
shows great gaps. 

We can not, therefore, regard the common vocabulary as in any 
sort borrowed by Sawaiori from Indonesia. 

To the theory of derivation from a common parent the objections 
are insuperable. A common parent would have delivered a greater 
community of vocabulary, would have delivered a grammatical sys- 
tem that would show some interrelation between the two branches 
of the family. There is absolutely no record of a speech of man 
which contains these few vocables which Polynesia and Indonesia 
share, for it must be plain long ere this point is reached that the 
Semitic theory has no sound base. 

The third possibility is that to which alone the objections are so 
few and so slight as readily to yield to the study of the problem, 
namely, that the community of vocabulary is Indonesian borrowing 
from Sawaiori. How this might be brought about has sufficiently 
been indicated already in the consideration of the nature and extent 
of the Sawaiori expulsion. 

The indication of quality of such borrowed material presented in 
the check -list affords more matter of interest. As in our study of 
the Melanesian traverse it indicates by lines of higher quality the 
lines of travel. 

Assuming, and this the well-recorded traditions of Java warrant — 
assuming the appulse of the advancing Malaysians as delivered upon 
the islands of the archipelago by the convenient way of the Malay 
Peninsula, Sumatra first would feel the shock, and Java next in 
practically undiminished volume. From Java two eastward ways 
lie out like a <. The northern line, following the north shore 
of Borneo, leads directly to the Philippines; following the south 
shore of that great island leads equally to the Philippines in their 
southern extent, but affords many opportunities of deviation by 
Celebes toward Gilolo northward and toward Bum and Ceram in 
a southerly course, and there the flight would be stopped by the 
inhospitality of New Guinea with the obstacle of its fierce and 
immiscible Papuan race. 

The southern line leads directly into the Arafura Sea and Torres 
Straits. The halting-places are such islands as Bali, Lombok, Rotti, 



SAWAIORI MATERIAI. IN INDONESIA. 173 

Samba wa, Timor, and lesser groups yet farther east. In the Arafura 
Sea the southern Hne would be joined by such of the fugitives along 
the northern line as deviated on the Celebes-Buru-Ceram course and 
were turned still further away by New Guinea. 

New Guinea is no theoretical obstacle. We find less trace of the 
Sawaiori on its almost continental mass than upon any spot of land 
which their canoes could have reached in the flight. Even up to 
the present day the Malays, for two millenniums holding all of 
Indonesia and voyaging hither and yon for the equal joys of fighting 
and of trading, have succeeded in making no permanent lodgment 
upon the Papuan shore. 

The Sawaiori flight out of Indonesia inverts the seasonal migration 
of the geese — its < opens forward. Thus parted, approximately at 
Java, it is to be a long flight before those diverging lines come 
together, not until Samoa is reached and a new home for the united 
race, for such at least as have escaped the infinite perils of unknown 
seas. It will be recalled .that in the study of the migration through 
Melanesia the material under examination was assembled to prove 
the existence of a northern and a southern track, the Samoa and 
the Viti streams respectively, one emerging from Indonesia through 
an eastern portal in the Bismarck Archipelago, the other through a 
southern portal in Torres Straits. 

The latter is readily recognizable as the direct production of the 
southern line of flight in Indonesia. If we examine such vocables 
as exhibit a difference between the two streams in Melanesia we 
shall find that those which characterize the northern stream find 
their greatest frequency, preserve the highest quality, in the several 
languages of the Philippine Archipelago, Bicol, Ilocan, Magindano, 
Pampangas, Sulu, Tagalog, Visayan and others from which our 
material is less complete. 

It seems that now it is time to relinquish the term Malayo-Poly- 
nesian. There is neither ethnic nor linguistic unity. If the Indo- 
nesians in the paucity of their original speech have borrowed some 
150 vocables from their victims, if they have been willing to take 
even their numerals from a conquered and fugitive race, it does not 
seem that they are entitled to be bracketed, and that with the 
honors of first mention, with a distinct family of speech. The Poly- 
nesian is an older speech than the Indonesian, one that has been 
carried greater distances of sea and land than even our Aryan until 
after centuries the Aryans grew bold enough to conquer the sea; 
yet uncounted generations earlier the sea had been the easy path 
for the Sawaiori to come to his Polynesian own. 



CHAPTER IX. 
THE SAWAIORI BEGINNING RESTS UNKNOWN. 

Check-list of the Semitic words for which affinity has been sought — 
Failure of the effort to identify this material with Sawaiori stock — 
The reasons lie in false definitions and ignorance of phonetic prin- 
ciples — The Semitic does not conform to the laws of the family — 
Summation of the results of this inquiry — The two Sawaiori swarms, 
the earlier through Melanesia, the latter not yet discovered on the 
face of the trackless sea — The double migration track in the western 
Pacific — The problem of the Melanesians has been considered only 
in so far as they have been affected by the wandering Sawaiori — End 
of the classification which has joined Malay and Polynesian — The be- 
ginning of the great Polynesian race is lost in westward and empty sea. 

As in the earlier chapters, we provide a check- Ust of the various 
Semitic identifications sought to be established by Dr. Macdonald 
in the data here collated. Thus those still curious in the further 
examination of the theme may follow the topic back to the several 
languages which he has involved in the elucidation of his theory. 



ic. 13 


17 


18 


19 


21 


22 


23 


25 


26 


29 


30 


31 


32 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


42 


43 


44 


45 


46 


47 


80 


83 


84 


85 


86 


88 


89 


90 


91 


92 


93 


97 


98 


99 


100 


lOI 


102 


103 


104 


105 


106 


107 


108 


no 


III 


112 


114 


116 


"7 


120 


133 


135 


136 


137 


138 


139 


140 


142 


143 


144 


145 


146 


150 


151 


152 


153 


154 


I.S6 


158 


160 


162 


164 


165 


166 


168 


170 


171 


172 


173 


174 


175 


176 


178 


180 


181 


182 


183 


184 


185 


186 


187 


188 


189 


192 


193 


194 


195 


196 


197 


198 


199 


200 


202 


205 


206 


207 


210 


211 


212 


220 


221 


222 


224 


225 


226 


227 


228 


229 


231 


232 


234 


235 



236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 249 250 

251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 262 263 264 265 

266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 

280 281 282 283 284 285 287 288 289 295 296 297 298 299 

301 303 304 305 306 309 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 

319 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 

334 335 336 337 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 348 349 

350 351 352 353 354 355 356 358 359 361 363 364 365 

Hebrew . 11 14 15 ig 20 21 27 ■ 28 32 38 42 46 81 82 

86 90 91 95 96 98 106 118 134 141 145 146 147 148 

156 157 161 163 171 177 179 181 188 189 190 193 198 201 

203 204 208 209 211 212 218 219 223 224 225 233 235 236 

239 242 248 253 269 271 276 279 282 286 288 289 291 292 

293 294 298 300 301 303 304 307 308 310 311 314 315 317 

319 320 321 326 331 333 336 338 340 343 344 347 350 356 

357 358 360 364 

Ethiopic. II 12 27 44 87 98 113 115 119 136 149 156 160 173 

189 191 230 243 248 261 264 276 287 291 294 303 308 311 

321 333 342 358 362 

Syriac. . . 16 94 loi 106 159 171 177 179 188 248 267 282 298 302 

317 321 331 333 340 343 350 

Chaldee.. 33 160 303 321 350 

Aramaic. 203 208 338 360 

Amharic.280 329 363 

Mahri. . . 167 312 

Sokotra .312 

Tigre. ... 119 

175 



176 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Beyond this we may not venture. The effort has been made to 
tabulate for each of these languages a scheme of consonant mutation, 
and the effort has proved vain. The trouble begins even earlier than 
the tabulation of variant forms. 

There are cases in which there is a resemblance of form between 
some Semitic vocable and some vocable in Hfate and Melanesia and 
Polynesia. If to the form resemblance were added correspondence 
in signification, then we should not truly in any one instance have 
proof that though widely separated in space they are homogenetic. 
A single instance will suffice as well as a thousand to show the utter 
lack of evidential value in such a case. The Hawaiian like means 
to resemble, to be like, yet no one has yet arisen to predicate upon 
the double identity of form and sense a theory that Hawaiian and 
English derive from the same source, except in so far as Fornander's 
project might be susceptible of extension to such an absurdity. 

A long catena of such dual resemblances of the common element 
in Melanesian and Polynesian with a Semitic parent speech would 
add confirmation with each new link as welded to the chain. Yet 
the weakness of any chain is in its weakest link ; that weakness meas- 
ures its utmost strength. Many of these links have been vitiated 
by the falsity in definition hitherto animadverted upon. We have 
pointed out instance upon instance in which through ignorance, some 
through manifest design, the definition of Efate vocables has been 
distorted for the clear purpose of establishing a sense resemblance 
where a form resemblance has already been noted, either by eyesight 
or in a rather fertile imagination. Losing our faith in this link and 
in that we can place no trust at all in the chain. So much for that. 

We find Semitic triliterals proposed as the parents of vocables in 
our Pacific islands in which the consonantal skeleton consists of but 
a single consonant, or of two. We find island vocables having a 
skeleton of three consonants proposed as in direct descent from 
Semitic stems in which it is impossible to discover a trace of more 
than two consonants, sometimes not even two. We find some Sem- 
itic triliterals identified with triconsonantal stems in island languages 
in which the order of the consonants is deranged. We find some 
Semitic triliterals identified with triconsonantal island stems in 
which the first Semitic element has vanished, the second and third 
are respectively first and second in the island stem, to which is added 
a third which corresponds to nothing in the Semitic; expressed dia- 
grammatically it is sought to establish ABC as equal to BCD. 

In vain we strive to tmravel Dr. Macdonald's attempts at con- 
sistent explanation. These things remain a tissue of irreconcilables, 
and the explanation but serves the more to confound them. 

Pretermitting as hopeless the task of comprehending these anoma- 
lies so gravely proposed and so argued with what must be regarded 



THE SAWAIORI BEGINNING RESTS UNKNOWN. 177 

as fabrications which will stand under no law of evidence, assuming 
that these obliquities can be made straight, we are to encounter a new 
jungle of difficulties in the examination of phonetic mutation. 

We have been able to develop for the Polynesian a very simple 
system. In the primary and even in the secondary Melanesian 
borrowings of Sawaiori loan material we have developed a system 
that seems to hold good as far as it can be put to the test, and this 
despite the confusions of the attempt of the Melanesians to catch 
in unaccustomed ears and to reproduce with untrained organs of 
speech, above all the lips, sounds unfamiliar. We have subjected 
the diffusion of these elements in various Indonesian languages to 
the same analysis. 

What principle or principles of mutation have we been able to 
discover in this trine examination as a factor common to the three 
families which use this common stock of vocables and which possess 
them in fee or as bailee? They are but few, these principles; corre- 
spondingly they are simple : 

1 . Thenasals tend toward a mutation, if any, backward in the direc- 
tion of the glottis. Less frequent is variety in the series to which 
each belongs. The mutation is horizontal rather than vertical. 

2. The consonants in each of the series tend normally to mutation 
downward in the series. 

3. At the foot of each series, palatal, lingual, labial, the mutes 
tend to mutation upward in the series, surd mute to sonant mute, 
mutes to spirants. 

4. Mutation extra seriem, horizontal mutation, is rare outside of 
the nasals, most such cases being explicable as mutation to the aspi- 
ration in the first instance and then secondarily from the floating 
aspiration to some adjacent series. 

How far do the proposed Semitic identifications conform to these 
broad principles which, in the intricate detail of the study put upon 
them in the foregoing chapters, have been established as perspicu- 
ously as simply? 

It would be idle to attempt to list all the concordances and equally 
the discrepancies of the Semitic offered in identification when meas- 
ured by these established principles. We note from the Arabic, 
from which Dr. Macdonald has drawn most largely, the proposed 
mutations in but two of the representative Polynesian consonants, 
t as being central in the diagram and f as representing the labial 
series and with it the maximum mutability. For each mutation we 
note but a single instance in reference; it seems that there will be 
no lively desire to seek out more. 

Polynesian t may become in Arabic: t (107), t (44), d (38), s (35), 
s (160), z (267), h (36), n (37), gr (247), rd (306), '(356). 



178 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Polynesian f may become: / (86), b (83), m (93), w (170), w (296), 

y (296). 

We fail to see how such movement, even if established on far 
better ground than we have here, can be brought into harmony with 
the foregoing briefly stated principles. 

These principles are fundamental in the three speech families 
which share the possession of this common element in the vocabu- 
lary. A fourth family, claiming admission to the clan yet showing 
so plainly that it fails to conform to the law of the household, must 
knock long at the door and long in vain. 

One more point and we are done with Dr. Macdonald and his 
Semitic origins. If he has proved his thesis his proof must exclude 
all use of the same materials to prove some other origin. There is 
another Richmond in the field, long earlier in the field, and he has 
been just as substantial and just as stout in defense of his theory 
that the Polynesians stem in the pre-Sanskrit Aryans. In the third 
volume of Judge Fornander's "Polynesian Race" will be found 
dozens of instances in which he uses the same Polynesian and the 
same Indonesian material that Dr. Macdonald groups about his 
Melanesian data for the proof of Semitic origin. Yet employing the 
same material Fornander sees naught but Aryan source. 

Let us compare the two lines of argument in but a single instance 
to serve as illustration. Brevity will best be conserved by pinning 
such comparison on 243, In this Dr. Macdonald carries the Samoan 
fili, to plait, through Melanesian and Indonesian to the Arabic fatala 
and faW and the Bthiopic fatlat, to twist, to spin. Hear now Judge 
Fornander as champion of the other cause : * 

Greek, efX(o, to roll up, to press together, pass to and fro, to wind, turn 
round ; iliiratu, turn round or about, roll, whirl ; ?-)~t^, twisted, curled ; j-, any- 
thing of a spiral shape, twist, curl, coil ; UXtu, to roll, of the eyes, to squint, 
look askance; ikk6<i, squinting; lkkd<;, a rope, band; V-^y^, a whirlpool. 

vSanskr., vel, vehl, to shake, tremble; vellita, crooked; anu-vellita, a band- 
age. To this Sanskrit vel Benfey refers the Greek sJho, the Latin volvo, 
and the Gothic ivalojan. Liddell and Scott also incline to connect sUm and 
volvo with the same root. To me it would seem as if the vSanskrit vrij, 
whose "original signification," Benfey says, is "to bend," and the Sanskrit 
vrit, whose "original signification," Benfey says, is "to turn," were nearer 
akin to the primary form from which the Greek sUm, IXXm, and the Poly- 
nesian hili, wiri, descend: that primary form being vri, now lost to the 
Sanskrit, with a primary sense of to bend, twist, turn over, braid, and of 
which vel, veil, or vehl, is possibly another secondary and attenuated form. 
With such a Sanskrit vri, surviving in vrij and vrit, the derivation of the 
Latin filum, thread, as twisted, spun; of the Latin varus, bent asunder, 
parting from each other, varix, crookedness; of the Saxon wile, deceit; 
of the Swedish tvilla, confusion, error, wilse, astray, becomes easy and 
intelligible. 

*3 Polynesian Race, 117. 



THE SAWAIORI BEGINNING RESTS UNKNOWN. 179 

It is impossible that each can be right in his deduction. To those 
who have followed thus far this review of the data it will seem far 
from impossible that each is in equal error. 

In summation we are to consider what facts are established in our 
knowledge of the earlier history of the Polynesians. 

A. In Polynesia. 

We have the excellent authority of concurrence of tradition, and 
to those who can bring themselves into harmony with the Poly- 
nesian manner of thought their tradition has the validity of history. 
We shall find this history most succinctly set forth in the volume of 
"Hawaiki" to which reference has been made earlier in this work, 
and we shall find its several incidents as derived from diverse sources 
most satisfactorily synchronized and intelligently discussed in the 
same work. We have in the foregoing pages and in the data upon 
which they are based a very considerable mass of language history. 
Fortunately we are not under the necessity of estimating the com- 
parative moment of each of these sources of information. That 
would be a problem as interesting as intricate in case of conflict. 
In our studies they run in confirmation and reciprocal corroboration. 
For every inference to which the philological line may lead us we 
find support in this fragment or that of some tradition; for every 
statement set down in the tradition we find such corroboration in 
the philological analysis that the legend handed down in memory 
is proved to have the value of history. 

Confirmed and upheld thus doubly at every point we are assured 
of the following facts in Polynesia : 

1. Nuclear Polynesia (Samoa the nucleus and Nine, Tonga, Viti, 
describing the perimeter) was under settlement by Polynesians from 
a date so remote that they had lost all direct memory of an anterior 
movement thither. They held themselves autochthons, and in the 
greater groups had creation myths in which land first emerged from 
the tireless sea, their own the first of lands and they upon it the 
first of men. These we style the Proto-Samoans. The indirect tra- 
dition of a former home told no rearward tale to them. It is only 
by inference and through digestion of many such traditions that we 
are able to read into the consistent belief in the westward home of 
the spirit a dim record of an earlier abiding-place. The dead go 
home, home to a home that the living have long ceased to remem- 
ber ; blessed are the dead in their direction sense. 

2. Upon this Proto-Samoan settlement came a later wave of 
migration of the same race. This second migration held its footing 
upon Nuclear Polynesia through a period whose duration we are 
quite without the data to estimate. In general the later migrants 
behaved so harshly to the original inhabitants, albeit of their own 



180 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

race and almost word for word of the same speech, as to provoke 
reprisals. For these later migrants we have adopted the name by 
which they are known in Samoan history, the Tongafiti, it being 
understood that the present names of the archipelagoes of Tonga 
and Fiji (Viti or Fiti) did not supply the name, but are derived there- 
from. From skirmish to pitched engagement these reprisals grew 
as the Proto-Samoans, driven from the shore to inner recesses of 
their islands, recovered strength in resistance. At last came the 
critical battle of Matamatame, somewhere about 1200 of our era or 
a little earlier. The Tongafiti were expelled from Samoa and began 
their eastward wanderings as far as Hawaii and New Zealand, the 
era of the great voyages. 

3. Nowhere in the present data are we able to pick up the track 
of the Tongafiti prior to their descent upon Nuclear Polynesia. We 
have made it clear that they did not follow the Melanesian route 
between Indonesia and Polynesia. It must remain for the students 
of the Tongafiti collaterals to discover their route; our concern in this 
study has been to identify the migration that did sweep along the 
Melanesian chain. 

At this point it is profitable to add the comment of S. Percy Smith 
upon a syllabus of my reasons for rejecting the Tongafiti migration 
from the Melanesian area : 

The Solomon-New Hebrides is not the only route open to them ; they 
may have stretched across from the north shore of New Guinea, or even 
from the northern Solomons, to the Gilbert, ElHce or Phcenix Group and 
so down to Viti. But for all that, until I see your argument, I must at 
present think they came by way of the Solomon and Santa Cruz groups 
to Futuna. The specimens I have seen of the dialect of Sikayana show 
a close connection with Maori and Rarotongan. Just consider this case: 
the Tongafiti came by the north of New Guinea following the first Samoan 
route, and as they came across their own people in various places along 
this route, such as in the Solomons, Santa Cruz and elsewhere, they would 
learn of former migrations having gone farther south and followed without 
delay, leaving none of their dialect behind among their fellow-countrymen 
they fell in with en route. 

The general argument has already been advanced at length. Spe- 
cifically I note in comment on the foregoing interesting note, as 
follows. Our data in Melanesia show a marked absence of traces of 
the vocables and mutation forms which characterize the Tongafiti 
in distinction from the Proto-Samoan. Furthermore the Tongafiti 
have left abundant traces of their passage through Nuclear Poly- 
nesia and all the more on that account is it inconceivable that they 
should have quite failed to affect their congeners in Melanesia if 
they had passed that way. I feel confident that a similarly careful 
examination of the islands along the Line will disclose the Tongafiti 
track. 



THE SAWAIORI BEGINNING RESTS UNKNOWN. 181 

B. In Melanesia. 

From the Isle of Pines, which at the bottom of New Caledonia 
sets the full stop to Melanesia, to the Admiralty Islands, which draw 
the northern line of that island province around and overlapping 
eastern New Guinea, we find three classes meeting our investigation. 

In the first is grouped the islands of Polynesia's western verge in 
which, ethnically and philo logically, we are dealing with Polynesians 
as surely as if we were in Samoa or Te Pito te Henua at the eastern 
limit; with this class, and because of its established Polynesian posi- 
tion, we have little concern in the present series of studies. 

The last class contains all those islands, if any there be, which 
represent Melanesia uncontaminated by a Polynesian influence even 
at second or third remove. This class also is removed from our 
present study. 

The central class is that with which we concern ourselves here, 
those many Melanesian lands in which the language record enables 
us to trace a Polynesian connection in speech, the amount and the 
quality of such contamination varying largely from group to group 
and from island to island and from the shore to the interior of 
an island. It is upon this class that our attention is fixed in this 
inquiry. It has been our task to analyze and identify each item 
of the contamination in so far as we possess the record with which 
to study it. It has been our duty to pass definitely upon each such 
item, to reject or to admit it to Polynesian kinship as the facts may 
seem to warrant. Prom the items so admitted we have sought to 
comprehend the system of variation from the true Polynesian form to 
which they have been subjected in passing into alien use. We have 
massed these items to the proof that they are loan words borrowed 
by Melanesia from Polynesians. We have sought to account for the 
contactof the two races in this area. In following up and, it is hoped, 
plainly establishing the overrunning of Melanesia by a Polynesian 
migration swarm, we have essayed to direct attention upon two par- 
allel tracks of swarming, parted far to the west and destined not to 
reunite until a long eastward traverse has been concluded. 

With the Melanesians themselves we have nothing to do save in so 
far as we find them recording the passage of the Proto-Samoans, a 
passage as to which the Polynesians have retained no direct memory. 
It suffices here to state that the students best acquainted with them 
regard them as a mixed race, the Polynesian admixture in blood 
being more a matter of inference than a result of anthropometrical 
investigation. There seems good reason to believe that under the 
Polynesian admixture there is not one but several races. Up to the 
present, on rather better grounds now than could be the case in even 
the recent past, there seems to be a line of demarcation quite sharply 
drawn between the Melanesians of the islands and the Papuans 



182 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

of New Guinea. To this conclusion point the brilUant studies of 
Sidney H. Ray upon the Melanesian population of Torres Straits. 
The same divergence, even within the most narrow limits, is pointed 
out by Pastor Hanke as existing on the shores of Astrolabe Bay on 
the northern coast of New Guinea ; the map accompanying his Bongu 
dictionary, unfortunately without a scale for the measurement of 
distances, shows Melanesian languages upon the offshore islands, 
on the coast Melanesian languages in three areas abruptly separated 
by two Papuan areas. It answers our purpose in these studies 
to observe that the languages of Melanesia are not Polynesian, no 
matter how much they may differ the one from the other. 

In general, and this note must be understood as of equal appli- 
cability to the Indonesian division of the topic, the culture plane of 
the peoples is the predeterminant factor in regulation of the nature 
and amount of the loan material which they may assume, the pho- 
netic system of their own speech functions in the degree of the 
assimilation to which they may subject the matter thus assumed. 
In this work I have refrained from consideration of the former factor. 
The data here presented, offering a record of probably very nearly 
all the loan material, should readily provide the stuff from which 
the student of manners might construct the history of the difference 
in the arts which marked the Melanesian as lower than the race of 
hardy and brilliant adventurers who swept past his islands these 
ages ago and brought to him a glimpse of a world where achievement 
ran higher. 

So far as relates to the modification of the loan material in the 
process of assimilation by the borrowing races I have been careful 
to draft a table of such modification for every one of the languages 
of which we have sufficient record, and in many cases I have supple- 
mented this with a fuller discussion in the notes. 

The conclusion to which I am led is that the element common to 
Melanesian and Polynesian is Polynesian material directly impressed 
upon the Melanesian by borrowing under stress of the lack of name 
for a new object or a new idea, or by the influence of some quirk 
of fashion, a principle no less operative in primitive man's mental 
equipment than it remains to the highest culture attainment of the 
summit races. 

C. In Indonesia. 

When we enter upon the island world to which New Guinea stands 
as the eastern barrier we find an immediate and a great decline in 
the element which has been found common to Melanesia and Poly- 
nesia. Only a few of the vocables in Melanesia for which we have 
discovered Polynesian affinities are found to carry that affinity back 
to Indonesia. Still fewer are the words which display an affinity 



THE SAWAIORI BEGINNING RESTS UNKNOWN. 183 

between Polynesia and Indonesia without having left a record of 
their passage through Melanesia. 

The presence of these double and of these more common triple 
affinities has served as the basis for the erection of the Malayo-Poly- 
nesian speech family. That family was created by great scholars 
and has been supported by their followers no less great. One hesi- 
tates to deviate from the conclusions upon which there is substantial 
agreement of Humboldt, Bopp, Friedrich Mtiller, Max Miiller, Whit- 
ney, and the generality of students of systematic philology. 

Yet now I have the less hesitation. In preceding works, where 
topically, however, I was dealing only with the Polynesian, I found 
myself forced to set aside the earlier estimate of the character of the 
languages of the Pacific and to establish them as of the isolating 
class,* a position in which I am more and more confirmed as my 
studies go more deeply into the matter. Therefore I am ready to 
pronounce the decree of divorce upon Malay and Polynesian. Lan- 
guages of different classes, of uncoordinate syntax, of irreconcilable 
vocabularies — too long have they been unequally yoked. In the 
present collection of data there is not a single item which is not most 
readily explicable as loan material, there is not one in which there 
can be mustered any proof that its source was Indonesian. 

D. The Old Home. 

The material with which we have so long been engaged, and it is 
hoped not without profit and interest, leads us from Polynesia back- 
ward along Melanesia and to many a remote shore of the Malay 
Archipelago. Did the Polynesians have no earher history? Was 
it in these warm islands that they became man and slowly acquired 
that control over certain muscles susceptible of high specialization 
in function which gave them speech? 

A most interesting speculation. It has engaged the zeal of all such 
as have felt the attraction of this least contaminated of the races 
of men. Every shred of tradition has sedulously been studied for 
such record as it might reveal. The interpreters of these tradition- 
histories have been led back to Indonesia as distinctly as this mass 
of linguistic material has led us who have been studying it together. 
All paths lead to Indonesia as an early, a very early, home of the 
Sawaiori. 

But backward ? 

Dr. Macdonald has toiled for a lifetime to prove a Semitic origin, 
a yet eastern home in the region to which the Bab el Mandeb is 
indeed a gateway. I can not find that his theory stands the test 
of examination. 

*27 American Journal of Philology, 380. 



184 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Myself, I have fancied that from the inner content of many of the 
elemental words of the language I might reconstruct a vision of the 
geophysics of the earliest home, ancestral Hawaiki in the great sea 
of Kiwa. It was a pleasant speculation ; almost I could see the old 
home. In casting about for a terrain which would in some sort 
correspond to this artificial cloudcuckooland I was led to pitch upon 
the Hadramaut, close to Dr. Macdonald's seat of origin. I have 
found pleasure, better yet it has been given me to find enduring 
profit in great joy, sweeping concentric circles of study upon the 
languages that ring about the Hadramaut in Arabia and across the 
straits in Africa. Yet nowhere have I found so much as a single 
word upon which I might rely in confirmation. 

Fornander, with much labor, has sought to find the origin of the 
Polynesians in the origin of our own speech family. It has not 
seemed to any Polynesian student necessary to enter upon a detailed 
disproof of his argument; every item sufficiently disproves itself by 
the discovery of his complete lack of philological training and the 
language instinct. 

The school of students of Polynesian origins, that unanswered 
"whence of the Maori," which has grown into enthusiastic existence 
in New Zealand, has been sedulous in this study, at times almost 
inspired. At present they are in general accord in regarding the 
Polynesian ancestral home as somewhere in the Indian peninsula, 
either in its great valleys of the Ganges and the Panjdb, or else upon 
the heights rising farther to the north. The best statement of this 
opinion is most lucidly and most compellingly set forth in Percy 
Smith's "Hawaiki." 

I wish that I might take my stand with that rich scholarship which 
has proved such an inspiration to me in my work. In following out 
the only method which I feel sure in handling I can not go farther 
than the material in my hand will lead me. At Java, or thereabout, 
the last thread slips past. Up to that point I have followed the 
leading toward Pulotu whither the dead go, toward Hawaiki whence 
the living come, always westward with the words to go with me 
from land to land — now at last the tale of the words is done. 

I may go no farther. In Java I halt, and Java may be in itself 
a Hawaiki. There is no further leading. Out yonder beyond my 
sight, out yonder over the unended sea and the sun going down, out 
and away whither my eyes tire with the strain of unavailing seeing, 
somewhere lies the Hawaiki of our vain search. There I would that 
I might see the canoes setting bravely forth with the rhythm of song 
and the pulse of paddles, bravely out on the great sea of Kiwa, their 
crews the forebears of that race of men who beyond all others made 
the sea their own, even to its uttermost islands. 



APPENDIX I. 
DATA AND NOTES. 



EFATE-VITI. 

I. 
baso, to pierce. 

Viti : veso-ka, id. 

2. 

bei, preposition connecting verbs with their objects; the final i belongs to 

the pronoun of the third person. 

Viti : vei, to, from ; used only before personal pronouns and personal 

names. 

3. 
kilakila, to be shy. 

Viti: kila, to be wild (of animals), suspicious. 

4- 
malua, mailua, malilua, malulu, to do an)^hing gently, to be in no hurry, 
to do after a time, by-and-by. 
Viti : malua, to go gently, to be in no hurry, by-and-by ; vakamalua, 
gently. 
This ma)- be found associable with malum 316. 

masere, to be torn. 

^j^* Viti: kasere, broken, loosed. 

This falls more properly under note 2 1 . 

6. 

mutrei (given as a variant of mitei 232), breadfruit fermented and preserved. 
Viti: mandrai, bread, i. e., a cake of preserved breadfruit. 

7- 
sanga, senga, a crotch, a fork made by two branches; sanga-fi, to take 
hold of with a crotch or forked stick. 
Viti : sanga, a crotch, the thighs, a pair of tongs ; sanga-va, to take 
hold of with tongs. 

8. 
toki, to gather up one's things or pack up preparatory to flitting. 
Viti : toki, to remove one's goods and residence. 

EFATE-VITI-MALAY. 

9- 
bara-ti, to bind together ; farati, sticks fastened above and upon the rafters 
of a house. 
Viti: vorati, the wind beams or upper small cross-beams of a house. 
Malay : barot, to gird, to bind around ; baroti, rafters. 

185 



186 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

lO. 

buta, blind, (in meta-huta, lit. eye-dark). 

Viti : mbutb, dark, darkness ; matambuto, to become dizzy and fall, 

lit. eye-dark. 
Malay: buta, blind. 

EFATE-VITI-SEMITIC. 
II. 

b^, ba-si, fa, va, to come, to enter, to tread (to go upon), to tread upon. 
Viti: va-tha, to tread upon. 
Hebrew : bo, ba. Ethiopic : bawi, to come, to enter. 

This naturally suggests an association with bano (147) to go. The Efat6 
ba-si implies a final .y-radical, which implication is further hinted by Viti 
vatha, for s-th is a not infrequent mutation. In bano, however, the radical n 
is constant throughout Melanesia with the exception of a New Hebridean 
(Mota-Ambrym-Sesake-Eromanga-Pak) and a Solomon (Nggela-Belaga) 
group, which have va. In view of the constancy of n in bano and the appear- 
ance of .$• in this item it is uncertain whether to regard this ba as a distinct 
root and to transfer from 147 the two va groups to association therewith, 
or to regard the latter as mere coincidences in the result of abrasion. With 
this ba. Dr. Macdonald associates as a dialectic form mai to come, which 
is, of course, nothing but the universal Polynesian directive. 

12. 

bila i, to pick up, to gather up anything, as fallen leaves, fruit, fish lying 
on the ground. 
Viti : vili, to pick up fallen fruit or leaves. 
Ethiopic: 'araya, to gather, as fruit, herbs; to glean. 

13- 
bitelo, butol, bitol, to be htmgry. 

Viti: vitolo, hunger, to be hungry (an unusual dialectic word). 
Nggela : vitolo, to himger. Motu : hitolo, himger. 
Arabic : talaha, ioliha, to have an empty belly. 

The first classification of these data was based upon the comparative 
material afforded by the Efatd dictionary. Later research through other 
sources of information have in several items brought to light new data 
which interrupt the applicability of the class heading, as in this case. The 
serial number of the items, however, had by that time been so extensively 
employed in many calculations that it has seemed hardly worth the while 
to recast the arrangement and to provide a new notation. 

Peculiar interest attaches to the entry which conveniently, yet inaccu- 
rately, is credited to the Motu. It is drawn from a vocabulary of 160 
items collected by F. R. Barton and included in Seligmann's "Melanesians 
of British New Guinea." Captain Barton designates this vocabulary by 
the name "Lakatoi Language" and notes that it is "the trading language 
spoken by the Elema natives and their visitors." In this remarkable 
lingua franca I have been able to identify no more than this item as having 
any association with the languages of our province. The lakatoi are the 



DATA AND NOTES. 187 

composite vessels which set out from Mo tu laden with pots and sail westward 
to the Papuan communities across the Gulf of Papua, there to barter their 
wares at Blema and other ports for the sago of that country. This voyage, 
an adventure of annual argosies, is performed with great ceremony and much 
ritual, not the least of which formality is the employment of this language. 

14. 
bure, fure, to wash, to rub. 

Viti : mbore-a, to scrape or wash the dirt ofif a thing, to brighten ; a 

dialectic word. 
Hebrew : marak, to rub, to polish, to cleanse by washing. 

15- 
fanau, bunu, to teach, to instruct, to preach. 

Viti: vunau, to admonish, to harangue, to preach, a speech, reproof. 
Hebrew : 'anah, to harangue, to proclaim, to preach, to admonish. 

16. 

ka, k', tense sign, past. 
Viti: ka, id. 
Syriac: ka, ga, id. 

17- 
kilakila, knowing, sagacious. 

Viti: kila, to know, to understand, to acknowledge. 
Arabic : 'akala, 'akiV, to be intelligent, prudent, sagacious. 

18. 

lele, lili, to wind, to go around, to turn, to curve; malele, to be bent or 
curved, as a branch of a tree heavy with fruit. 
Viti: lele, the end of a branch farthest from the body of a tree; 

leletha, to bend a branch in order to gather the fruit on it. 
Arabic: lawa, to wind, to bend, to turn. 

19- 
lume a, to wash (immerse), to dip. 

Viti : lomotha, to dip, to dye, to daub the hair with ashes, to dip the 

head into urine to clean or stiffen the hair. 
Hebrew: saba\ Arabic: sab"a, to dip into, to immerse, to dye. 

20. 
saf i, bisab, bisif, to excel. 

Viti: sivia, to outstrip, to exceed, to pass another, to get past or 

before, to surpass; uasivi, to exceed. 
Hebrew: yasaf, to add, to increase, to surpass, to excel. 

21. 
sere, masere, to tear. 

Viti: sereka, to untie, to unloose; kasere, broken, undone. 
Arabic : nasara, to tear, to rend. 

22. 
seri, bakaseri, to loose a tabu. 
Viti: sereka, to untie. 
Hebrew : sarah, to loose. 



188 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

23- 
si, soi, to scrape. 

Viti : soya, soi, to scrape off the skin of yams for boiling. 
Arabic : saha', to scrape off. 

24. 

tefa ki, tefa-ngi, to put things in a series, to range. 

Viti: tuva, to place in regular order, to range. 

Arabic: saffa, to set or place in order in a series, to arrange. 

It is at least suggestive of association with Samoan tufa, to divide, to 
share out, to distribute. The Viti form readily consents. 

Tonga : tufa, to divide, to portion out, to distribute. Nine : tufa- 
tufa, to divide, to portion out. Uvea: tufaki, to distribute, 
to divide, a partition. Futima : tufaki, to distribute, to divide, 
Fotuna: no-tufa, to give. Tahiti: tufa, to share or divide 
portions. Marquesas : tuha, to divide, to apportion. Rapanui, 
Mangareva : tuha, to divide, to share out. Maori : tuwha, to 
distribute, to apportion. 

Nggela: tutuva, to distribute (food). Belaga: tuva-lisa, to 

apportion. Sesake : cf . ga tova ivango, I cut pig. 

In note 312 I have suggested the recurrence of this stem in the compound 
numeral of the tavalima series. 

25- 
tirikit, to begin to drop or spatter, of rain {kit, small). 
Viti: tiri, to drop, of liquids. 
Arabic : s'als'ala, to drip, to fall in drops. 

This is properly included in 359. 

26. 
tu na, bones of fish. 

Viti: ndua, bone (dialectic). 

Arabic: s'a'a, to become spiky, to be rayed. 

EFATE-VITI-MAI,AY-SEMITIC. 

27. 

bera, fera, to crumble, to fall to pieces. 

Viti: vuruvuru, a crumb, to crumble. 

Malay: ambor, tabur, to be scattered. Malagasy: mahavera, 

tniveraberaka, to crumble. 
Bthiopic: far fur, a crumb. Hebrew: parpor, a crumb; pur, par 

pirper, to break in pieces. Cf. 28. 

28. 
bori, boriuori-si, to break. 

Viti: vorota, to break, of brittle or thin things, as pots. 

Malagasy: puritra, to break. 

Hebrew: por, pur, to break in pieces. Cf. 27. 



DATA AND NOTES. 189 

29. 

lita, liti, to crackle, to burst, to explode, as wood or a stone in the fire; 

lita nakabu, a spark. 
Viti : lindi, thalindi, to burst or explode, the report of an explosion 

or bursting, as of thunder or a stone in a heated oven ; lindi ni 

buka, a spark. 
Malay: latok, latup, latub, to crackle, to crepitate; latum, to boom, 

to give out a booming noise. 
Arabic: la"ata, la"t, li"at, to crackle, as water boiling. 

30. 
lubwa, to pour out. 

Viti: livia, talivi, to pour gently or in a small stream, to spill. 

Malay: tumpah, mdnumpah, to spill, to shed, to pour out. 

Arabic: sabba, to pour out. 

In 1 54 the same Viti identification has been employed in a better set of 

sense resemblances. 

31- 
sabe-ii, to beat, to slap. 

Viti : sambalaka, to strike in a certain way, to slap. 

Malay: tampar, to slap. Java: tampel, id. 

Arabic: safa'a, to beat, to slap. 

32. 
samit, samut, to beat, to chastise. 

Viti : samuta, to beat, generally with a heavy stick. 

Malay: chamiti, chamati, a whip or scourge. 

Hebrew: s'amat, to strike, to smite. Arabic: s'amat, to whip. 

The identification of the Malay entails the s-ch mutation, for which our 
material afifords no confirmation save so much as may lie in 45. 

33. 
siba, suba, to break. 

Viti : sovetaka, to break the head to pieces ; sovuta, to break a hole 

in thin things. 
Malay: sumba, simba, to break. 
Chaldee : s'ibeb, to break in pieces ; s'iba, a fragment. 

We are to meet with no other instance of a v-mb mutation in Indonesia 
and only one (Malay 310) of v-b; the identification, therefore, lacks con- 
firmation. 

34- 
son, to give. 

Viti : solia, to give, to grant, to permit. 

Malay: sarah, srah, to submit; sarah kan, to give. 

Arabic: s'ara'a, to submit, to give. 

35- 
tatalai, to warm oneself at the fire. 
Viti: tatalai, id. 
Malagasy: mitulu, id. 
Arabic : sala, salyy' , to warm, to be warmed at the fire. 



190 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

36. 
tiro, to sink, to roll down. 

Viti: tiro, siro, sisiro, to descend, to go down a steep or hill. 

Malay: turun, to go down. 

Arabic: hadara, hudur', to descend, to put down. 

37- 
toto, tiso, to exude, as gum or juices from plants. 

Viti: ti, titi, titiva, to ooze, to flow gently down, as gum from a tree. 

Malay: titik, to exude. Malagasy: mitete, mitate, tetevana, id. 

Arabic: nas's'a, to exude. 

38. 
trom, torn, turmeric, a reddish curry powder. 

Viti: ndamu, red, crimson, brown, dun. 

Malagasy: taniutamu, turmeric; tumamutamu, yellow. 

Arabic: 'adoma, to be red. Hebrew: 'adamdom, reddish. 

EF ATE- MELANESIAN-VITI. 

39. 
bati, tooth. 

Viti: mbati, tooth. 

Sesake: mbati, tooth. Epi: bati, id. Marina: peti, id. 
p Dr. Macdonald has considered this under two entries,yet with full appre- 
ciation that his nabati is this bati with the article. It will be found fully 
discussed in 259, where, however, the stem under examination is that of a 
different word and of much wider dissemination. This bati is confined to 
Viti and the central New Hebrides. 

40. 
bui na, bua na, backbone, tail, rump. 

Viti: mbui, tail. 

Sesake: mbuena, tail. 

41- 
make, maka, offspring. 

Viti: makumbu, mokunibu, grandchild (mbu, grandmother). 
Tangoan Santo: maka pi, grandchild, offshoot of pi (grandfather). 

EFATE-MELANESIAN-VITI-SEMITIC. 

42. 
fara, a sprouting coconut. 

Viti : vara, a coconut when filled with meat and ready to shoot. 
Motu : vara, to grow, to be born. Omba : kmbwiri, to grow. 
Hebrew: parah, to burst forth (as the young from the womb), to 
sprout; per ah, a sprout, a shoot. Arabic: farh" , offspring, 
sprout, shoot. 

loa, black, dirt. ^^' 

Viti: loa, black. 

Malekula Pangkumu: roro, dirty. 
Arabic: lo'wat, lawla', blackness. 



DATA AND NOTES. 191 

44- 
taku na, the back. 

Viti : ndaku, the back. 

Epi: taka, the back. Malo: tura, id. Motu: ndolu, id. 
Ethiopic : dahr, posterior part ; dahari, the last ; dahara, to be after, 
to be behind. Arabic: t'ahr' , the back. 

Dr. Macdonald finds kinship with Samoan tua the back. Neither that 
nor the Malo and Motu identifications can be sanctioned. 

EFATE-MELANESIAN-VITI-MALAY-SEMITIC. 

45- 
bisa, fisa, basa, to speak. 

Nukuoro: pasa, to speak. Fotuna: visau, id. 

Viti: vosa, to speak. 

Sesake: vasa, to speak. Nggela: bosa, id. 

Malay: bacha, to read, recite, chant; basa, voice, speech. Tagalog: 

basa, to speak. 
Arabic: nabasa, to speak, to peep or chirp; nabsat', a word. 

An interesting suite, all the more because of the sparsity of the occur- 
rence of the stem in each of the provinces. The proposed Semitic affinity 
contains at least one element which is not found at all in the Sawaiori. 

46. 

kan i, kanikani, to eat; kanien, food. 

Viti: kana, kania, to eat; vakania, to feed, to cause to eat; 
veikanikani, devouring one another; kani, laukana, edible. 

Melanesia, all signifying to eat — Marina, Tubetube, Galavi, Boniki, 
Mukawa: kani. Sesake: ganikani. Galoma: ganigani. 

Belaga, Sinaugoro: gani. Rubi: gania. Gog, Merlav: gan. 
Nggela: gana, ganigi. Mota: ganagana. Retan, Lo, Mota, 
Maewo : gangan. Duke of York : wangan. Leon, Sasar : gen. 
Vuras : gengen. Ambrym : ngene. Nguna : ngani. Ambrym : 
"^ ngene. Gog: ngongot. Buka: nan, nanni, tuanan, iana 

(restricted to cannibal eating). Duke of York, Roro, Uni, 
Pokau, Kabadi, Motu, Hula, Tavara, Awalama, Taupota,Wedau : 
ani. Mekeo: angi. Keapara: hani. Sariba: kai. Suau, 
Mabuiag : ai. Dobu : e'ai. Kabadi : ania. New Britain : 
an, ian. 

Malay: makan, to eat. Malagasy: humana, hanina, id. Togean: 
mokonie, id. 

Arabic: 'akala, to eat; 'akW, messmate. Hebrew: 'akal, to eat. 

Although the alternative form nganikani points (see note 117) to a 
Polynesian stock, it is impossible to link kani with the Polynesian kai to 
eat. While the omission of a medial consonant sometimes takes place, and 
in the tabulation of the phonetic results we have a solitary example in 
inum (32 1) to drink Marina o'omia, yet if it were far more common it would 



192 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

still remain impracticable in this instance for the distinct reason that we 
are quite unable to adduce a single word in which all Polynesia has dropped 
a medial consonant which all Melanesia has retained. 

Viti shows that a or i may be the final vowel. The i- forms are found in 
Efat6, Viti, Marina, Sesake, Belaga, Nggela, Nguna, Duke of York, Buka, 
Kabadi; to which may be added an e-form in Ambrym. The a-forms 
occur in Viti, Nggela, Mota. Terminal abrasion is found in Gog, Merlav, 
Retan, Lo, Maewo, Duke of York, Nguna, Buka, Kabadi, New Britain, 
Leon, Sasar, Vuras. 

The earlier vowel of the radical is found as a in Efate, Viti, Marina, 
Sesake, Belaga, Gog, Merlav, Nggela, Mota, Retan, Lo, Maewo, Duke of 
York, Nguna, Buka, Kabadi, New Britain. An e-form occurs in Ambrym, 
where it is associated with final e, and in Leon, Sasar and Vuras. If indeed 
it be the same radical an o-form is seen in Gog. 

The initial consonant k occurs in Efate, Viti, Marina, Sesake. It passes 
from surd to sonant g in Sesake, Belaga, Gog, Merlav, Nggela, Mota, 
Retan, Lo, Maewo, Leon, Sasar, Duke of York, Vuras, Ambrym. It goes 
still higher in the palatal series to ng in Nguna, Ambrym and perhaps Gog. 
It is abraded in Duke of York, Kabadi and New Britain. The second 
consonant remains n without change in all these cases, save again the Gog 
anomaly and the Mekeo. 

We therefore diagram this radical thus : 

k1 1 fi 

I a I I 

g 1* !> n < e 

I e 1 I 

ng J J La 

The anomalies are now to be considered. With a vowel not elsewhere 
found, with a change n-ng which the radical but once elsewhere exhibits, 
and with the assumption of a final t which elsewhere does not appear, 
Gog ngongot is not acceptable in this record. The only way by which it can 
be included is to assume it to be a composite form, ngon-got, and this parting 
of the palatal nasal would be wholly indefensible. The remaining anom- 
alies, at the extreme north of the Samoa track, suggest an explanation by 
a developmental series. Frontal abrasion is sufficiently well established in 
the Melanesian handling of Polynesian loan words to admit Duke of York 
ani to the kani radical. This admission will naturally carry with it Kabadi 
ania (a the common verb isolating objective suffix), and by terminal 
abrasion New Britain an. This an may be taken to admit New Britain 
ian, and this in turn carries with it Buka iana. The other Buka forms 
involve a further leap. Reverting once more to Duke of York ani, if we 
can regard nanni as in some sort a reduplication (which it must be ac- 
knowledged is informal) that would carry nan with it and for tuanan we 
should have to postulate a composite of this nan. This is far too involved 
to be satisfactory. 

Our Indonesian material is based on a radical in-k-n and the identifica- 
tion should be overruled. The Malagasy is at variance with Indonesian 
and Melanesian alike and should be rejected. It is impossible to see that 
the Semitic has anything to do with the case. 



DATA AND NOTES. 193 

47- 

tai na, brother's brother, sister's sister. 

The Proto-Samoan radical is tehi, as shown by Niue, Tonga and Uvea. 

Samoa: tei, younger brother or sister. Nine: tehina, younger 
brother. Tonga : tehina, younger brother or sister. Uvea : 
tehina, brother, sister. Rarotonga, Paumotu, Mangareva, 
Tahiti, Maori: teina, younger brother or sister. Marquesas: 
teina, a younger brother. Sikayana : teina, brother. Futuna : 
tdina, brother's brother, sister's sister. Hawaii: kaina, the 
younger of two brothers or of two sisters. 

Viti : tathi, a younger brother or sister. 

Mota: tasi-k, brother. Malo, Laur, Lamassa, Lambell, Kiriwina, 
Dohu: tasi, id. Epi : to/i*, id. Motu : todi, younger brother 
or sister or cousin. Malekula : /m, brother. King: c?tm, id. 
Bauro: o^i, id. Santo : im-wa, his younger brother. Pala: 
tes, tasi, hroth&r. Keapara, Hula, Galoma: an, id. Waima: 
hati, id. Kabadi: kadi, id. Misima, Panaieti: tari, id. 
Sinaugoro: tali, id. 

Malay: adik, brother. Bugi: anri, id. Malagasy: zandri, id. 

Arabic: rasi', brother. 

The initial consonant is t in Polynesia (Hawaii k), and in Melanesia, with 
the single exception of Bauro asi where it is dropped ; this is our only Bauro 
word, so that we are without information as to the frequency of the frontal 
abrasion of this mute, but it is not unknown in Melanesia. The change to 
d in King is normal. 

The aspiration is found in Epi ; it undergoes the normal transition to the 
sibilant in Mota, Malo, Laur, Lamassa, Lambell, Malekula, Bauro, Santo; 
its mutation to th in Viti is usual; the sound in King is not quite clearly 
identified, it was collected by the same German explorer who gathered 
Laur, Lambell and Lamassa ; Efat^ alone drops the aspiration ; the Motu 
d is normal to that New Guinea settlement; and elsewhere in Melanesia, 
involving the surd instead of the sonant, is found in Alite, Saa and Wango. 

The final vowel is constant. 

Of the former vowel there are two main groups. Polynesia generally, 
and Malekula and Santo have e; Melanesia generally, and Viti, Futuna and 
Hawaii have a. King again stands in a class by itself with i. 

In Santo the na is clearly possessive suffix, such also is the k in Mota. 

The only common element in Indonesia is a-i parted by a consonant, 
which is not the aspiration or a normal mutation thereof; the initial con- 
sonant is absent. We can not accept this identification. The Malagasy 
may be associable with Bugi, certainly not with the Proto-Samoan. 

EFATE-POL-YNESIAN. 
48. 
alo, belly, abdomen, the front, before. 

Samoa: alo, the under side (as of a cloth or the belly of a fish), a 
chief's belly, the seat of the affections. Tonga: alo, the 

abdomen of great personages. Futuna : alo, the entrails, in the 



194 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

presence of, before. Maori: aroaro, the front, presence, face. 
Tahiti, Mangaia: aro, id. Hawaii: oZo, id. Marquesas: ao, 
before, in front. Rarotonga : aroaro, the presence. Manga- 
reva: aro, the presence, before. Paumotu: aronga, the visage. 

49. 

bafano, fafano, to wash the hands. 

Samoa: fafano, fanofano, to wash the hands and rinse the mouth. 
Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea : fanofano, to wash the hands. 
50. 

bwefe, fefe, oven cover made of leaves. 

Samoa: veve, leaves covered over an oven to keep in the heat. 
Futuna : veve, name of a mat of leaves of coconut or other plant 
placed on the viands in an oven to keep them from being soiled 
by the earth which covers them. 
51- 
boboi, a mask, cover or disguise. 

Tonga, Uvea : fufu, to hide, to secrete, to conceal. Futuna, Niue : 
fufu, id. 

52. 

bukubukura, full of little swellings, pimples. 

Samoa : po'u, pimple. Futima : poku, id. Tonga : bokubaku, a scab. 

53- 
fet, a bird's nest. 

Samoa : fataninga, a bird's nest. Niue : fata, id. Uvea : faiai, id. 

Tonga : bununga, a nest. 
Nggela : niku, a nest. Bugotu : gniku, id. Mota : nig, to build 
a nest. 

54- 
ata, a man. 

Samoa: atali'i, {li'i, small) son, lit. little man. Rapanui: atariki, 
oldest son. Nuguria: atoriM, son-in-law. 

55- 
mafa, to be broken, cracked. 

Samoa: mafa, ora vaginae aperta. Tonga: mafaa, to open, to 
extend; mafaafaa, split, cracked, choppy. Futuna: mafaa, 
broken, cracked. Niue : mafa, mafafa, a crack, a rift. Hawaii : 
maha, to make a rent or hole in. Nukuoro : mahaa, to break. 
Uvea: mafaafaa, to yawn, to gape. 
56. 
maia, a species of banana. 

Samoa : mamae, one kind of banana. Tonga : mamae, the plantain. 

57. 
makinikini, to be itchy. 

Samoa: ma'ini, to tingle, to smart. Tonga, Futuna: makini, id. 
Niue: maeneene{f), to tingle. 

The absence of the k in Niue is anomalous and points to an association 
with Samoan eneene to tickle. Cf. 227. 



DATA AND NOTES. 195 

58. 
manu, a multitude, a very great number, a thousand. 

Samoa : mano, manomand, 10,000, a myriad, a great number, innu- 
merable, the limit of counting. Tonga, Nuguria : mano, 10,000. 
Maori, Rapanui, Tahiti: mano, 1,000. Hawaii: mano, 400,000, 
multitudinous. Mangaia: mano, 2,000, innumerable. Mar- 
quesas : mano, 4,000, any great number. Paumotu : manomano, 
innumerable. Nukuoro : mano, 100 ; mano-tini, a very large 
number. 

59- 
manubunubu, nobwanobwa, to be soft, sleek as the skin of a newborn pig 
or infant. 
Hawaii : nopunopu, thoroughly cooked, soft, spongy, large, plump, 

fat, swelled out ; nopue, plump, round, as a well fed fat hog. 
Oiun : nubanuba, soft, as cooked food. Kiviri : nunubas, id. Motu : 
manokamanoka, id. 'P6kau:manomano,id. Kabadi:ma«0TO,id. 

60. 
mataisau, matakseu, a carpenter. 

Samoa : mataisau, an honorific term for carpenter. 

The derivation from mata as "the eye (or director or master) of cutting" 
does not seem so valid as that in which I have assigned it to the Samoan 
matai, one skilled as a master of craft, and sau, a particularized cutting as 
shown in saupapa to cut off the outer part of a log to make it level and 
smooth. The Viti matai means carpenter and then by extension a mechanic 
of any craft. 

61. 
mauta, mautu, rising ground. 

Polynesia, all signifying mountain: Samoa, Futuna, Mangaia, 
Maori, Rarotonga, Manahiki, Bukabuka, Fakaafo: maunga. 
Paumotu : mahunga. Hawaii : mauna. Sikayana : fakamauna. 
Tahiti: maua. Mangareva: manga. Tonga, Uvea, Niue, 
Rapanui: mounga. Nuguria: mauna, mouna. 

The derivation suggested as from man to remain firm does not particu- 
larly appeal to me, although mau-nga is in form a typical noun-making 
from an attributive in which the verb sense has so strongly developed as 
to call for such differentiation. I set contra the note that in the languages 
in which maunga has undergone vowel change (mounga, manga) the pro- 
posed radical mau as verb remains unaltered. 

62. 
me, name, namai, a rope, a string. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Uvea : maea, a rope, cord, cable. Nuguria : 
maia, a band. 

63. 
mitariki, the Pleiades. 

Polynesia names the Pleiades thus: Samoa: matali'i. Futuna, 
Tonga: mataliki. Fotuna, Nuguria, Maori, Mangaia, Ma- 

ngareva: matariki. Tahiti: matarii. Hawaii: makalii. 

Marquesas: mataiki. 



196 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Micronesian names for the same constellation : Ponape : makeriker. 
Lamotrek : magarigar. Yap : magirigir. Mortlocks : marikir, 

EFATE-VITI-POLYNESIA. 
64. 
bule, a shell, lit. gleaming, shining, glittering; cf. bila 284. 

Samoa : pule, a white cowry, general name for marine shells ; pulepule, 
small shellfish; pulei, to be checkered, to be mixed alternately 
as different colored beads in a necklace; pulepule, spotted, 
striped with various colors. Tonga: hule, a cowry; bulebule, 
a shellfish; bulevaka, the white cowry; bulebule, spotted. 
Futuna: pule, a univalve shell; pulepule, striped, spotted 
with various colors. Niue : pule, the cowry ; pulepule, striped, 
variegated. Uvea: pulepule, variegated. Hawaii: pulepule, 
varicolored, spotted, speckled. Tahiti, Rapanui: purepure, 
spotted, checkered. Mangareva: akapurepure, to color, to 
variegate. Paumotu : hakapurepure, to dye, to color. Maori : 
opure, pied, variegated. Rapanui, Nuguria: pure, a shell. 
Viti : mbuli, the white cowry. 

Mota: pule, a very dark cowry shell. Miriam: fea-(a shell) -6t*/t- 
huli, a small univalve. 

65- 
fiso, an annual reed-like plant whose top is used for food. 
Samoa : fiso, wild sugar cane. Proto-Samoan : f iho. 
Viti : vitho, wild sugar cane. 

Mota : viso, a reed with edible flower head. Motu : hido, id. 

66. 
ngongo, an aquatic bird, to wade. 

Samoa: ngongo, the tern {Sterna longipennis) . Tonga, Niue: 

ngongo, the sea gull. Futuna : ngongo, the name of a bird. 
Viti: ngongo, a sea bird. 
The proposed derivation through Samoan 'a'au to swim from Arabic 
hamma is not convincing. 

67. 

kie, the plant whose leaf is baked, dried and split into threads to be woven 

into mats. 

Maori: kiekie, the name of a climbing plant {Freycinetia banksii), 

the leaves and fiber were formerly used in making fine mats. 

Tonga : kie, a mat ; kiekie, a girdle. Futuna : kie, a mat ; kiekie, 

a species of liana. Rarotonga : kie, the Freycinetia banksii. 

Marquesas: kiekie, moss resembling a fine beard. Tongarewa: 

kie, the pandanus leaf, the mat woven therefrom. Mangareva : 

ngie, small pandanus leaves used in mat-making. Samoa: 

'ie, fine mats; 'ie'ie, a Freycinetia used in making fish traps. 

Tahiti : ie, a sail (of matting) ; ieie, fibrous roots used in basketry. 

Hawaii : ie, a vine used in basketry, material braided into mats. 

Viti: kiekie, fine mats, pandanus whose leaves are used in mat 

making. 



DATA AND NOTES. 197 

68. 

langa-ti, langa i, langai, to raise, to lift up. 

Samoa: langa, to raise, to rise. Tonga: langa, to raise up the soil; 
fakalanga, to raise up. Uvea, Futuna : langa, to raise. Niue : 
langa, to rise against; langaaki, to raise up. Nukuoro: langa, 
to float. Hawaii: lana, id. Maori: ranga, to raise, to cast 
up. Mangareva: ranga, to float on the surface of water. 
Paumotu : fakaranga, to raise, to lift up. Tahiti : toraaraa, to 
raise up. Marquesas: aka, ana, to swim on the surface. 

Viti: langa, to be lifted up, said of a brandished club. 

Mota : langa, to lift up, to turn up. 

69. 
langilangi, to be proud, upUfted. 

Samoa : fa'alangilangi, to be angry because of disrespect. Tonga : 
langilangi, powerful, great, applied to chiefs; fakalangilangi, 
to honor, to dignify, to treat with great respect. Hawaii: 
lanilani, to be proud, to show haughtiness. Uvea: fakalai, 
to compliment, to adulate. 
Viti: langilangi, proud. 

70. 
lofa i, to bend. 

Samoa : lofa, to cower down, to crouch as a dog. Tonga : lofatia, 

obedient, yielding, respectful. Proto-Samoan : lofat. 
Viti: lovetha, to bend. 

71. 
mono-ti, munu-ti , to close, to plug, to stop, to block up ; though given as a 
dialectic form of bono-ti it is probably of a different stem. 
Samoa: momono, to cork, to plug; monomono, to calk. Tonga: 
mono, to squeeze, to press in : monoji, to cork ; monomonoji, to 
patch, to mend. Futuna: mono, to calk, to bung, to plug. 
Uvea: momonono, to patch. Proto-Samoan: monot. 
Viti: mononotaka, to stop up sennit or other holes in a canoe with 
breadfruit gum, to calk. 

72. 
sakau, a reef. 

Samoa : a'au, a coral reef. Tonga : hakau, a sunken reef or rock. 

Maori : akau, the coast. Mangareva : akau, lowland, shoal, a 

ridge of rocks. Paumotu : akau, a reef of rocks. Mangaia : akau, 

a coral reef. Nuguria: agau, id. Proto-Samoan: hakau. 

Viti: thakau, a reef. 

EFATE-MELANESIAN-POLYNESIAN. 

73- 
ata na, spirit, soul, shadow, image. 

Maori: ata, morning personified, a reflected image, shadow, spirit, 
soul. Samoa: ata, shadow, spirit, dawn, reflected image. 
Tonga : ata, a shadow, the dawn, to reflect. Niue : ata, shadow. 



198 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

reflected image. Futuna: ata, shadow, twilight. Fotuna: 
ata, ghost, shadow, image. Tahiti: ata, shadow, twilight. 
Marquesas : ata, shadow, likeness. Mangaia : ata, shadow, soul, 
dawn. Mangareva : a/a, shadow, image, twilight. Nukuoro: 
ato, shadow. Fila: ata, the soul. Uvea: aato, shadow; ata, 
image. Moriori: ateata, dawn. Hawaii: aka, shadow, 

likeness, dawn. Nuguria : ie ata te mahina, the waning moon. 
Rapanui : ata, image, picture, dawn, break of day, close of day; 
ataata, close of day. 
Mota : ata, soul. Bierian : ata mate, ghost. 

74- 
ati na, nati, nutu, child. 

Maori: ati, descendant, a prefix to tribal names as descendants of 
certain persons. Samoa: ati, a particle denoting a number 
of chiefs of the same name or title. Tahiti : ati, patronymic 
prefix grouping the name of an ancestor with the descendants. 
Mangareva : ati, descendant. Also, Maori : ngati, patronymic 
tribal prefix, descendants of. Mangaia: ngati, a tribe. 

Omba : nati, native of. Makura : nati, son, people of. Bierian : 
nati, son. Makelula: anati, netin, child. Malo, Nguna: 
natu, son. Baravon: natu, son. Lambell: natu, child. 

Wagawaga : natu, son, child of a woman's sister. Tubetube : 
natu, child, grandchild, child of a woman's sister, child of brother 
of man or woman. Motu: natu, son, daughter, brother's son. 
Sinaugoro, Suau, Sariba, Panaieti, Dobu, Tavara, Awalama, 
Taupota, Wedau, Galavi, Boniki, Mukawa, Kubiri, Raqa, Kiviri, 
Oiun: natu, child. Kabadi, Pokau, Doura: naku, offspring, 
child. Roro, Hula: nahu, child. Kiriwina: latu, id. Keapara, 
Galoma: nau, id. Mekeo: ngaunga, id. King: nutu, child. 
Lamassa: nutii, child. Matupit: tu, son. Duke of York, 
Pala, Modnus: nat, child. Lamassa: fandt, child. 

The existence of the ati-nati inEfat6 and Maori ati-ngati shows that the 
common Polynesian forms are the result of frontal abrasion. The pre- 
sumably older complete form holds throughout Melanesia, except as noted 
below, and the n undergoes no change. So, too, the second consonant 
remains unaltered except that in Kabadi t-k shows a far western instance 
of a change which is resistless in parts of Polynesia to-da}^ The former 
vowel remains without alteration throughout Melanesia except for the 
u-ioxva. of King and Lamassa on the New Ireland coast, yet the presence 
of the a in Duke of York within eyeshot shows this a merely local variant. 
The principal variation involves the final vowel. Polynesia and the central 
New Hebrides (Efate, Omba, Makura and Malekula) have i. Nguna in 
the same tract of the New Hebrides has u, thence we encounter no record 
of the word until we find the w-form in the extreme north in Torres Straits, 
Baravon, Lambell, King and Lamassa. Duke of York and Moanus nat 
may be an abrasion of nati or natu, but from the fact that they lie in the 
natu region the latter is probably their source. Matupit tu and Lamassa 
fandt are included more on account of general suggestion of resemblance 
than from established identification. 



DATA AND NOTES. 199 

75- 

matulu, matultul, matoltol, to be swollen, thick. 

Samoa : m&tolutolu, matoutou, thick (restricted to pork). Nukuoro : 
matolutolu, thick. Tonga, Futuna, Nine : matolu, thick. Uvea : 
matolu, thickness. Maori: matotoru, id. Fotuna, Tahiti: 

matoru, thick, full-fleshed. Mangareva: matoru, fat, thick, 
heavy. Rapanui : matorutoru, thick, not compact. Hawaii : 
makolu, wide, thick, deep. Marquesas: motou, thickness. 

Epi: torn, large. Norbarbar: motoltol, thick. Mota: matoltol, id. 
Nguna : matulu, id. Malekula : metetir, id. Baki : merer olu, id. 

This root is discussed under 163. 

um, ubu, oven. 

Samoa, Maori, Nukuoro, Nine, Tahiti, Hawaii, Mangaia, Marquesas, 
Mangareva, Paumotu: umu, oven. Tonga: ngotoumu, id. 
Uvea: ngutuumu, id. Futuna: iimu-kai, id. Fotuna :amw, 
cooking place. Rapanui: uviu, oven; humu hare, cookhouse. 
Motu : amu, oven. Mabuiag : amai, id. Miriam : ame, id. New Bri- 
tain : ubu, id. Mota : um, id. Ponape : um, id. Bierian : batimo, 
id. Tanna: noanumun, oven stones. Aneityum: inmunum, 
oven {inmun, an opening) ; nehpanum, a large fire for cooking. 

The Polynesian radical is consistently umu. Tonga and Uvea compound 
with it a word which in Uvea is distinctly ngutu mouth and in Tongan we 
may feel that ngutu has been specifically differentiated in this composite. 
In the Futuna composite the latter element is merely kai food. 

The principle of terminal abrasion is sufficient to identify with this the 
Efate and Mota urn, and even the remote and extralimital Ponape um. 
It is no difficult task to find the identification in Motu and Fotuna, for the 
u-a mutation is general. The fact that Efat^ has tihu as well as um serves 
to link in the New Britain uhu. We lack data on which to discuss an m-b 
mutation; the nearest approximation lies in a single m-v instance in 
masaki (323) ill Nggela vahagi. Codrington (Mota dictionary) cites the 
New Britain word as umbu. This would correspond to the system in Viti 
where a b requires the preface of an m. It might be that a people who 
required thus to preface a b would by attraction add a 6 to an m in 
loan material. Then when it passed along in secondary borrowing to 
others who could manage an unprefaced b the proper m would be relin- 
quished in favor of the intrusive b. This is purely speculative, yet we 
may cite at least one instance in which a similar principle has been active 
in the borrowing. We have this on Dr. Codrington's excellent authority 
(Melanesian Languages 92) : 

The formation of the Fagani figu (star) deserves notice. In that place the k of Wango, 
three miles oH, regularly turns to /, but g represents the same letter left out, perceptibly, 
with a gap in the sound, in Wango. The Fagani (Ha'ani at Wango) word figu ought, 
then, to represent the Wango hi'u, and in fact it represents he'u. But it is very instruc- 
tive to observe that the gap in the Wango word really means t, not g, and has been filled 
up with g in the Fagani word under a misapprehension. It is plain that the Fagani 
and Wango words are independent, because one comes from vitu, one from vetu. The 
interest lies in the filling up the gap with g in Fagani, because the gap in Wango generally 
represents g, though sometimes it is in place of /. 



200 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

77- 
usu, iu, u, a reed. 

Samoa: ti, a reed. 

Malekula: ui, a reed. Epi: yi, id. 

The communit)' of u in Samoa and Efate together with the presence of 
the longer form usu in the latter argues in favor of usu as the earlier radical, 
which has been preserved in Efate. We are not without examples in these 
comparisons of the possibility of a double terminal abrasion, first the 
abrasion of a final vowel, then the abrasion of the consonant thereby 
exposed, thus presenting a new vowel final. This seems rather to have 
been the method than the bodily dropping of a final syllable. This note 
will be found extended in 98. 

Malekula and Epi are by no means satisfactorily identified. They seem 
much more distinctly to be variants of some radical of which i is the con- 
stant component. 

EFATE-POLYNESIAN-MALAY. 

78. 
ne, here, there, this, that. 

Samoa: net, this, here. Mangareva, Aniwa, Sikayana, Futuna, 
Uvea, Nuguria, Niue: net, this. Maori: net, denoting near 
position. Tahiti: nei, here, now, this. Hawaii: nei, this 
(of place, time, person) . Marquesas : nei, here, now. Paumotu : 
nei, here. Nukuoro: nei, now. Rarotonga: ainei, this. 
Tonga: ni, this. 
Macassar: inni, this. 

79- 
tumatuma i, to knock, as at a door as a sign to open it. 
Samoa : tuma, to strike with the knuckles. 
Malay : antani, to knock. 

EFATE-POLYNESIAN-SEMITIC. 

80. 
aiiali, taliali, to delay, be slow. 

Hawaii : alia, to wait, to stop one when doing a thing, to restrain, 
used imperatively, stop ! wait ! take care ! stand aside ! Tahiti : 
aria, stop ! hold ! Mangareva : karia, an interjection used to 
show off a thing in the sense "there! do you see!" Samoa: 
tali, to wait for; fa'atali, id. Futuna, Uvea: tali, tatali, to 
wait for, to expect. Maori : tatari, to wait, to tarry. Tahiti : 
tatari, to wait, to delay. Rapanui: tatari, to wait for. 
Nukuoro : hakatari, to wait. Hawaii : kali, to wait, to tarry, 
to stay. Tonga: tali, to wait for. Rarotonga: tatari, to 
wait. Marquesas: tetai, to wait for, to stay for. 

Arabic: ala (alu), alia', to delay, be slow. 

Particular interest attaches to the synonymy in Efate of two forms, 
each of which is found in Polynesia though never again are they brought 



DATA AND NOTES. 201 

together in the same speech. The existence in Polynesia of a third form 
in k (Mangareva karia, but not Hawaii kali) seems to point out this as an 
instance in which shades of meaning are communicable by the system of 
consonantal modulants which I have elsewhere argued at length (27 Ameri- 
can Journal of Philology, 392). 

81. 
amos i, amo, amo-taki, amo-rua, tak'amo, amoamo, to carry, to bear, to 
carry on the shoulder. 
Samoa, Maori, Hawaii, Marquesas, Mangaia: amo, to carry on the 
shoulder. Futuna : amo, to carry a burden. Uvea : amonga, 
a burden, carrying pole. Tahiti : amo, to carry on the back. 
Moriori, Nuguria: amo, to carry on a pole. Aniwa: amo, to 
take. Rapanui: amo, to carry; amo mai, to bring; amo, a 
yoke; amonga, a burden. Tonga: haamo, to carry on the 
shoulder. Nine: hahamo, to carry a burden on a pole. 
Hebrew : 'amas, to bear, to carry, especially to lift up a burden and 
put it on a beast. 
That the Proto-Samoan radical is hamos is established as to the initial 
aspiration by Tonga and Nine, as to the final consonant by Efat^. 

82. 
bakateba, to watch, to look out for. 

Samoa: tepa, to look upward. Futuna: tepa, to turn the head 

or eyes in order to look. 
Hebrew : sapah, to look out for, to view, to watch. 

83- 
beingo, baingo, a shell trumpet, a kind of flute (coconut shell). 

Samoa, Futuna, Uvea: fangufangu, a flute. Tonga: fangufangu, 
a flute, to blow through the nose. Uvea: fangu, to blow the 
nose. Niue: fangu e ihu, id. Hawaii: hanu, to emit breath 
from the lungs ; hanuhanu, to smell, as a dog following the track 
of his master. 
Arabic : baka, to blow a trumpet ; ba'ku, ba'ko, a trumpet. 

The sense of the Polynesian will be made satisfactorily clear by the note 
that the flute is played at the nostrils. If the coconut shell is really used 
in Efate as a musical instrument it has escaped my observation and all 
record, so far as I have seen, and at any rate it would properly be classed 
rather with the ocarina than with the flute. 

84. 
bua, to divide. 

Samoa: vaevae, to divide. 

Arabic : fa'a, fa'w', fa'y', to split, cleave, to be open, separated. 

If there be any validity at all in this identification it must be with the 
element va as meaning to have or to be a space between. It will call for 
bu-v mutation. The only light which our material sheds upon such a 
mutation lies in the similar pu-v in vivini (242) to crow Malekula puinpuin 
to whistle. On the radical sense of va see 27 American Journal of Phil- 
ology, 387. 



202 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

85. 
bubu, to gargle. 

Samoa : pupu, to gargle, to rinse out the mouth. Tonga : bubu, 

to gargle. 
Arabic: ba'ba', ba'ba'u, gurgling sound of water flowing from a 
bottle. 

86. 

bulifulia, mabulu, mafulu, swollen here and there, fat. 

Samoa: fula, dropsy of the belly, stout; fulafula, swellings on the 
body ; fufula, to swell ; fulafula, fulanga'i, to be swollen. Tonga : 
fula, a tumor, a hard swelling ; fufula, to swell ; bubula, a swell- 
ing, protuberance, to swell, to bloat. Futuna: fula, fufula, 
fulafula, pula, to swell. Niue: fufula, to swell. Uvea: fufula, 
mapula, id. Hawaii: hula, a swelling, a protuberance under 
the arm or on the thigh. Fotuna : no- fur a, to swell ; niko-fura, 
swollen. 

Hebrew: 'afal, to swell up, to be tumid. Arabic: 'afila, to have a 
tumor or hernia. 

The Proto-Samoan radical being f ulang we should look for the final con- 
sonant in Efate. Since it is not found, since even the vowel is different, 
we are not to accept this identification as altogether satisfactory. The 
labial uncertainty, however, is perhaps critical. The hesitation as to the 
employment of the spirant or the mute is carried along into Nuclear Poly- 
nesia ; Tonga uses surd spirant and sonant mute ; Futuna and Uvea use 
surd spirant and surd (their only) mute. 

The Semitic is still farther away from the mark. 

87. 

buri, biri, to pierce, to stick. 

Samoa: velo, to cast a spear or dart, to spear. Tonga: velo, to 
dart. Futuna: velo, velosi, to lance. Uvea: velo, to cast; 
impulse, incitement. Niue: velo, to throw a spear or dart. 
Maori : wero, to stab, to pierce, to spear. Tahiti : vero, to dart 
or throw a spear. Mangaia : vero, to pierce, to lance. Manga- 
reva: vero, to lance, to throw a spear. Marquesas: veo, to 
lance, to throw a spear. 

Ethiopic: barara, to stick, to stab. 

The Proto-Samoan radical being velos brings this under the same com- 
ment as in the last preceding item. 



elo, el', lolo, sweet, pleasant, agreeable. 

Hawaii : olu, to be pleasant, agreeable. 
Arabic: hala' , halw', to be pleasant, agreeable. 

Without more data we may neither wholly affirm nor quite deny this 
identification as between Melanesian and Polynesian. The sole point of 
Semitic resemblance lies in the possession of /. 



DATA AND NOTES. 203 

89. 
emai, emwai, in the distance, far away, 

Samoa, Nukuoro : mao, distant, far. Samoa, Uvea, Fakaafo, Vate, 
Maori, Hawaii, Mangaia, Manahiki, Rarotonga, Paumotu, 
Nuguria: mamao, distant, far away. Tonga: matnao, id. 
Futuna: mamao, id. Nine: mamao, id. Tahiti: taumamao, 
to hang out of reach. Mangareva : akamamao, to send away. 
Marquesas : memao, distant, far away. 
Arabic: ma' oka, to be far off, distant; ma'k', distance. 
The Polynesia inamao can scarcely be brought into association with Efate 
emai, as our author suggests without any consideration of the difficulties. 
To me emai seems far more likely to be the widespread mai, from, with a 
verb-making prefix. In neither case can the Semitic be said to have any- 
thing to do with the matter. 

90. 
fam i, bam i, to eat. 

Samoa : samiisamu, to eat the remains of food ; samuti, to eat (jocu- 
lar). Tonga : hamu, to eat food of one kind only. Futuna : 
sam.uko, id. Maori: hamuhamu, to eat scraps. Tahiti: am,u, 
to eat; aamu, a glutton; hamu, gluttonous; aihamu, to eat 
gluttonously the leavings of others. Hawaii: hamu, to eat 
fragments of food. Mangareva: amu, to eat with the mouth, 
not using the hands; to eat scraps or leavings. 
Hebrew : pa' am, to have the mouth full, to swallow down. Arabic : 
fa'ama, id. 
The Proto-Samoan radical is samut. 

Against the identification lie two objections. In my note 77 I have 
shown how the abrasion of a final syllable may be accounted for as the 
abrasion of a vowel to a new terminal in a consonant followed by a second 
abrasion of the consonant to a new terminal in a vowel. Such operation is 
sufficiently rare in our material ; far rarer would be such a case as this, the 
abrasion first of consonant, then of vowel, to end upon a closed syllable 
once more. The mutation s-f, s-b, must be rare indeed, for these materials 
show not a single instance of at all a satisfactory nature, not a single 
instance in which an s migrates to any point in the labial column. 

The Semitic identification is as remote from Efat^ as it is from Polynesian. 

91. 
fasu, fasua na, a part, portion, member of the body. 

Samoa : fast, to split, a bit, a piece. Fotuna : no-fafasia, to split. 
Tonga: faahi, a side, a half of anything divided. Futuna: 
faasi, a side, a portion. Nine: fahi, a side, a place. Uvea: 
faahi, a side, a part, to divide. Nuguria: te vahi mahina, the 
crescent moon. 
Viti : vathi, to cut (chiefly of yams) ; pieces of yam for planting. 
Hebrew: basa', cut in pieces. Arabic: bas'a'a, to cut, to cleave; 
bas/'at, a part, a piece. 
The vowel change i-u is not so rare as to vitiate this identification (see 
17 Journal of the Polynesian Society, 85). 



204 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

92. 
fonga, afo, nafo, whetstone, grinding stone, and (because used as a whet- 
stone) pumice. 
Tonga, Futuna, Uvea, Nine: fuanga, a grindstone. Tonga: fiio- 
fuanga, pumice. Samoa : foanga, grindstone. Maori : hoanga, 
grindstone, whetstone. Mangareva: hoanga, oanga, a fine 
volcanic stone used for whetstones, a grindstone . Hawaii : hoana, 
a hone, whetstone, grindstone. Tahiti: hoaa, a whetstone. 
Arabic: nasfa-t, whetstone, pumice. 

The stem is fo and fu. This surely can have nothing to do with the 
Semitic identification proposed. There is reason for doubt as to the defini- 
tion. It will be understood that whetstone must be a very modern sense 
of the word in the Pacific, for until the Europeans brought iron the islanders 
had nothing to whet, since the process of putting an edge on stone imple- 
ments is a tedious process of grinding. How far pumice is susceptible of 
such employment in whetting iron I am unable to say, but in the grinding 
of stone it can have little value. If it were not for the fact that the pumice 
sense is recorded from Tonga I should incline to regard the explanation given 
in the Efate case as a labored effort to produce harmony with the Arabic. 

93- 
ngafa, a fathom. 

Samoa, Tonga, Nukuoro: ngafa, a fathom. Nine: of a, id. 

(Lamotrek: ngaf, id.) 
Arabic : kamat, a fathom. 
The exact agreement of Efate and Nuclear Polynesia suggests no connec- 
tion with the proposed Arabic source other than that of identity of meaning. 

94. 
ngaingai, to pant, to be out of breath. 

Samoa: nga (Tutuila dialect), nga'e, to breathe hard, to pant, to 
be out of breath. Tonga: nga, to pant; ngaaki, to cough. 
Futuna : ngaaki, to pant, to be out of breath. Mangareva : nga, 
to be hoarse. Maori: nga, to breathe; tunganga, to be out 
of breath. Hawaii : na, to gasp, to half-breathe ; nae, to pant. 
Marquesas : nae, obstructed respiration. Rapanui : ngaengae, 
shortness of breath, out of breath. 
Syriac : kah, to pant. 
The Proto-Samoan radical is ngak. The Efat^ is explicable as formed 
from the already abraded stem by the verb-forming suffix. 

95- 
ngoko i, ngokoi, ngokei, ngokai, to scrape, to mark, to paint, to smear (all 
used in reference to nafona or bast cloth) ; koko, reddish juice 
or paint for bast cloth made from a plant of the same name. 
Samoa: 'o'ai, to mark or paint bast cloth; 'o'a, the tree (Bischoffia 
javanica) from which is obtained the coloring matter for this 
use. Tonga : koka, the name of the tree ut sup. ; to paint cloth. 
Futuna : koka, id. Niue : koka, name of a tree whose wood is 
used for rafters. 



DATA AND NOTES. 205 

Hebrew : hakah, hakak, to cut into, to hack, to engrave, to carve, to 
draw, to paint, to delineate. 

The identification involves none but frequent mutations as between 
Efat6 and Nuclear Polynesia. The verb may be derived from the tree 
name ; the tree may have been named from the purpose to which it is put. 
Of the two equal possibilities I incline to the former, for the use of the * 
in forming the Samoan verb tends to make it transitive and specific, literally 
to pnt-koka-on. If this be so the sense is one of painting or daubing. 
Therefore in Efate, where our author specifies that it is used only of bast 
cloth as in Samoa, the sense "to scrape" can only be descriptive of the 
motion of painting and without signification of removing aught. He 
has evidently relied upon that sense to clinch his identification of meaning 
with the Hebrew word proposed as ancestral. The general quality of his 
Semitic parallels is quaintly illustrated in this Hebrew word. He has given, 
in which I have duly followed him, the emphasis of italics to the definition 
hack, evidently struck with the resemblance hakah-hack, and not unwilling 
to let the implication stand that our hack is Yiddish. Our Germanic fore- 
bears had the word long before they acquired the raw material of the 
Judenhetze. 

96. 
kaf, to be bent. 

Maori: kohu, somewhat bent, concave, warped. 
Hebrew : kafaf, to be bent. 
Cf. kabwe 179. 

97- 
kari, takan, to hasten, to go swiftly. 

Maori: kari, keri, to rush along violently, as wind. 
Arabic : kara, to hasten. 

98. 
kon, kona, kokon, ngkon, to be bitter. 

Samoa: 'owa,'o'owa, bitter, sour, acid, poisonous ; 'ow(wm, to be drunk, 
poisoned. Tonga: kona, konahia, bitter, drunk, poisoned. 
Futuna: kona, bitter, poison. Nine: kona, konahia, bitter, 
acid, nauseous, drunk, poisoned. Nuguria : ^o»o, sour. Uvea: 
kona, bitter, poisoned, drunk; konahia, drunkenness. Fotuna: 
kona, drunk. Hawaii : ana, drunk. Tahiti : onaona, sharp, 
disagreeable. 
Mota: gogona, bitter. Santo: kogona, id. Eromanga: nakan, id. 
Arabic: homa-t, bitter, heat, gall, poison. Bthiopic: hama-t, id. 
Hebrew: hamah, id. 
The Proto-Samoan radical is konas. 

The Efat^ forms show us still more clearly than in 77 the graduation of 
the process by which a final syllable is lost, not as syllable but by successive 
abrasion of its members. In kona we have the transition form after the 
abrasion of the final .y. In kon, kokon, ngkon we find the ultimate result 
upon the abrasion of the then final vowel. Thus it is made clear that the 
syllable does not drop off as a unit. 

The proposed Semitic identifications accord with this only in one or in 
two vowels, the consonant structure being wholly unUke. 



206 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

99- 
leba, a species of earth, clay, mud, dirt. 

Maori :re/>o, dirt. Tahiti: re/>o, earth, dirt, mold, dust, filth. Manga- 

reva: repo, dirt, ordure. Paumotu: repo, dirt, mire. Hawaii: 

lepo, general name for dirt, dust, defilement of any sort, clay. 

soil, earth, dung. Marquesas : epo, dust, dirt, mire, mud, earth, 

Arabic: tabi'a, dirty; tahe', taba', dirt, mud; tub'an, clay. 

lOO. 

lifani, libuis, rafalu, rffalu, a part, some. 

Nine : falu, some, a little. Fotuna : efaru, some, many. Tahiti : 

fanu, some. Nukuoro : hanu, a little. 
Arabic : ba's'u, a part, some. 

lOI. 

mak, to fall, become mild, gentle, die away, as the wind; mao, maomao, 
to be gentle, mild. 
Samoa : mao, lull in the wind or the waves, the lull in a reef opening. 
Tonga : maoniao, dry, applied to the intervals between showers. 
Nine : mao, fine after rain, to cease raining. Futuna, Maori, 
Tahiti: mao, to cease raining. Hawaii: mao, to pass away, 
as fog or cloud. Marquesas: mao, dry, as land once wet. 
Syriac: mak, to be cast down, prostrated, humble, mild. Arabic: 
mahiha, to be mild. 
The difficulty here is that mak, which has to do with the wind, does not 
identify itself with the Polynesian mao; and that mao, which accords in 
form with the Polynesian, lacks accord in sense. Because we must rest 
upon the Polynesian base of form and signification we cannot accept this 
identification with Efat6 and therefore must decline the Semitic which 
our author identifies with his Bfate material. 

I02. 

malei, to divorce. 

Samoa : alei, to divorce. 
Aneityum : arei, to drive away. 
Arabic: hala'a, to divorce. 
If Melanesia or Pol5rnesia afforded more identifications we could pass 
more confidently on this. If malei be an older form of the word we then 
have to do with a case of frontal abrasion, not wholly unknown yet rare, 
as will be seen in the tables in the Melanesian chapter. 
But the Semitic accords with neither. 

103. 
maloi, buloi, a mask, cover of the face. 

Samoa: pulou, a head covering, bonnet, turban. Tonga: bulou, a 
veil or cover to conceal the face ; buloa, a mask. Futuna : pulou, 
to veil, to cover the head. Uvea: /a&a^w/oM, to veil. Hawaii: 
pulou, to cover the head, to blindfold. Tahiti : purou, to cover 
the head. Mangareva : puroku, to cover the head, as withahat. 
Rapanui : pud, to put on a hat. Nuguria : buloo, a hat. 



DATA AND NOTES. 207 

Viti : vulou, pulou, to cover oneself up face and all. 
Arabic: barka'a, to cover the face, to veil; burka'o, burk'u, a veil. 

104. 
maloiloi, to be feeble, tottering from weakness. 

Hawaii: loeloe, maloeloe, feeble, faint, weary. 

Arabic: la'la'a, to be infirm and weak from disease and languor. 

105. 
masirsir, to sob, as after crying. 
Samoa: mdsusu, to sob. 
Arabic: zahara, to pant or gasp with vehemence and groaning. 

The equivalence herein involved, sir-su, is extraordinary; and Dr. 
Macdonald's grammar of Efate is so completely devoted to the statement 
of his Semitic theory that we encounter no suggestion as to the pronuncia- 
tion of sir. It may be that he intends it to be pronounced as the syllable 
would be if English. In that case the vowel change is reasonable and the 
identification excellent. 

The Semitic, however, seems not to fit. 

106. 
(a) mau, true; loamau, truth, true. 

Tahiti: mau, true. Mangareva: mau, id. Rapanui: mau, certain. 
(6) mau, firm, intrepid, brave. 

Samoa : mau, to be firm, decided, unwavering. Tonga : mxiu, fast, 
firm, constant, unwavering. Maori: mau, fixed, steadfast. 
Nuguria : tamau, to bind, 
(c) mau, to come upon, to obtain, to find. 

Samoa: m,aua, to get, obtain, have, take. Maori: mau, to take 
up, lay hold of, seize. Tahiti : mau, to hold, to seize. Tonga : 
mau, to obtain, possess. Mangareva: mau, to hold, to seize. 
Tongarewa : mau, to possess. Uvea : mau, to seize, to grasp, 
to hold, to contain. Rapanui: mau, to hold, to accept, to 
acquire ; maua, to find ; maoa, to hold. 
{d) mau, very, indeed, continually. 

Maori: mau, continuing, lasting. Samoa: mau-, very. Hawaii: 
mau, constantly, continually. Tonga : mau, always, perpetually. 
Bierian: lehmau, truth, true. 

Hebrew: 'aman, to prop; 'amen, firm, unshaken, faithful. Arabic: 

'amana, to confide in ; 'amuna, to be faithful ; 'amina, to trust, 

to be secure. Syriac: 'eman, to persevere, to be constant; 

'amen, verily, truly, certainly. 

The Efat^-Poljmesian identifications are satisfactory in all four groups. 

The Semitic is not satisfactory in form at all. 

107. 
mwota, motamwota, refuse, rubbish, as fallen leaves. 

Samoa: otaota, rubbish, filth, ordure. Tonga: otoota, sweepings, 
rubbish. Futuna : otaota, impurities in a badly strained fluid. 
Niue : otaota, rubbish, refuse. Uvea : otaota, excrement, dung, 
filth, dirt. Maori : ota, sawdust ; otaota, weeds, litter. Tahiti : 



208 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

ota, chaff, refuse. Paumotu: ota, residue. Rapanui: 
hakaotaota, to crumble. Hawaii: oka, refuse; okaoka, dust. 
Arabic: "ota', rubbish, refuse. 

Again we encounter what seems to be a frontal abrasion, and it involves 
the same consonant as in 102. More evidence on the Melanesian side is 
needed before the identification will be quite satisfactory. But if the m is 
indeed radical it removes the resemblance on which the Semitic identifica- 
tion is based. 

108. 

nai, side board of a canoe, defender of a place, fence. 

Samoa: a, at, a fence, railing. Tonga: a, fence, hedge; ai, to 
surround, inclose, defend. Futuna: a, wall, hedge, fence, 
anything which makes an inclosure. Uvea: a, wall, fence. 

Tahiti : nanai, to put in a hedge. 

Arabic: nawa', naa', to guard, to protect. 

This involves a frontal abrasion, namely of n; but the recurrence of the 
n in Tahiti nanai is very good evidence in favor of the identification. 

109. 

nobwa, ob, naob, lime (ashes of coral); nobwanobwa, to be dusty, to 

become dust, to fly in the air (dust). 
Samoa: navu, lime. 
Pokau : avu, lime. Mekeo : apu, id. Motu : ahu, id. Hula : abu, id. 

Galoma: gabu, id. Sinaugoro: gau, id. Rubi: gou, id. 

Sariba : gauarana, id. Nada : pwau, id. Kiriwina : pwak, id. 

Wedau: gabubua, id. Panaieti, Misima: aru, id. 
Arabic: cf. no. 

The Samoan may be homogenetic with nobwa, but it is impossible to 
associate it with ob and naob, unless the decrepit forms from Torres 
Straits are susceptible of interpretation as transition stages. That nobwa 
is not itself a modification of ob with the article is clear from the fact 
that nobwa takes the article and then becomes nanobwa. 

no. 

noba-ni, tuma-ni, tumu na, tomo na, manubunubu, to wrap in leaves with 

hot stones and cook; nobwanobwa, to be cooked, soft. 
Hawaii: nopu, thoroughly cooked, soft, plump, fat, swelled out; 

nopunopu, to spring or swell up (in the mind), to swell, to be 

large, round, to spring up. 
Arabic : tabaha, tabh', to cook, roast, ripen, to grow up, to be cooked ; 

tubbah', tabih', fatness; tabih' , cooked. 

In the fact that there may be a satisfactory sense identification of the 
Hawaiian with nobwanobwa I see no warrant to extend the identification 
to the inclusion of nobani and manubunubu where the difference in significa- 
tion seems prohibitive. Granted that this complete identification be valid 
it can serve in no way to admit tumani and the other forms in t; yet it is 
upon the / in these forms that our author hangs his Semitic identifications.. 
They bear no relation to the Polynesian. 



DATA AND NOTES. 209 

III. 

nu e a, nunu ea, to wipe, to rub ; nunu, a wiper, a rubber. 

Samoa: nunu, to grate down, as turmeric; nuanga, the grating of 
arrowroot and turmeric. Futuna : nu, nunu, to grate arrow- 
root. Niue: nu-pia, id. 

Arabic : t'amma, to sweep, to rub, to wipe off. 

112. 

ofiofi, ofi, afi, to be near to, alongside of. 

Tonga: ofi, near at hand, nearness. Futuna: ofi, ofiofi, near, 

close to. Uvea: ovi, id. 
Arabic : wahafa, wahf , to draw near to, to approach. 

113- 
rakei, raki, to adorn, to dress. 

Samoa: la'ei, dracaena leaves tied to a stone to attract cuttlefish, 
to fish with that device, to wear a train, to dress for a review 
of troops; la'ei'au, to exercise troops at a review, to have all 
ready for war. Tonga : lakei, leaves made fast to the stone 
used in catching the catfish as an ornament, to fish therewith. 
Futuna: lakei, used only of a garment, to have a long train. 
Nuguria : lagei, to paint the body with turmeric . Mangareva : 
rakei, to ornament, to adorn, a garland, chaplet, decoration. 
Rapanui: rakei, an ornament, to adorn, to embellish. 

Ethiopic: lahaya, to adorn, to dress. 

114. 

raku sa, raraku sa, taraku sa, taku-ti, to bind up, to remove one's things 

as in a flitting, to remove, to carry away. 
Samoa: la'u, to clear off, to carry away; la'u mai, to bring. Uvea: 

laku, to send, to throw into. Hawaii: laulau, a bundle, bag; 

a wrapper of a bundle, the netting in which food is carried; 

lalau, to seize, to catch hold of. 
Arabic : raka, to dig, to bind up. 

115- 
ras i, tas i, to shave the head, to strip off fruit from a tree. 
Samoa : lase, to scrape off warts. 

Mota : ras, rasa, to scrape, to scratch, to rub. Malo : rosi, to scrape. 
Ethiopic: las' ay a, to shave. 

116. 

runi, a cluster; rei, a band of men, a clump of trees. 

Maori : ruru, to tie together. Tonga : lulu, the reeding of a house. 
Tahiti: ruru, to congregate. Mangareva: rurue, to bring 
together a crowd ; ruruku, to head up leaves. Paumotu : ruru, 
a coop, a cage ; ruruhanga, an assembly, to collect an assembly. 

Arabic: ra'a, to grow, luxuriate, be congregated; ri'at, a band, a 
crowd. 



210 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

117. 

siuer (siwer), suara, suuara, surata, to walk, proceed, go away; sisiuer, 
susuara, to walk about. 
Samoa: savali, savavali, to walk. 
Arabic : safara, sifar', to make a journey, to go away. 

The identification is not wholly satisfactory nor yet to be set aside, for 
we have no such chain of data as would enable us to make a sure determi- 
nation. The v-u('w) mutation is sufficiently frequent to call for no remark; 
thus siuer and suuara are accounted for and suara is but a slight and single 
step removed. But stirata is not by any means in the same line and is 
impossible of association. In the reduplicated forms lies the strongest 
argument against identity ; it w^ill be observed that while Samoa duplicates 
the latter member, savavali, Efate duplicates the former, sisiuer. In the 
discussion of a single item in the great topic of duplication (Duplication by 
Dissimilation, 30 American Journal of Philology, 173) I have presented the 
argument in proof of the determination of the relative importance of the 
two parts of a composite word as revealed in the duplication. It is here 
seen that in Samoa the latter element, bearing the duplication, is of the 
more importance. We can scarcely believe it possible that this assignment 
of importance is but a modern development in Polynesia; it surely must 
have been even better recognized in the earlier phase when they were migrant 
through Melanesia. If siuer be a Polynesian loan word, and I have already 
remarked (1. c. 180) upon the fact that wherever the words which undergo 
duplication in Efate are susceptible of identification they are uniformly of 
Polynesian stock, it seems strange that in adopting the Polynesian mech- 
anisixi of duplication these Melanesians should have misapplied it. Of the 
twenty-five identifiable duplications in that paper thirteen correspond 
exactly with the Samoan duplicated forms; eleven are not comparable 
because of the absence of duplication in these words in Samoan ; one only 
is at variance with the Samoan duplication, and in this case the Samoan 
has two v/ords of the same sound but of different sense, only one of which 
is duplicated, and the duplicated Efate form corresponds with the form 
of the duplicated Samoan, but with the sense of the unduplicated, and it 
would seem that the Samoan had but specialized to avoid the chance of 
error. We may, then, accept the general principle that Efate duplicates 
the same elements as Samoan. This determination, and I must regard 
it as based on good grounds, militates against this identification. 

The Semitic identification proposed is altogether too good in form when 
we regard the length of their separation from the putative common stock. 
The Samoan has but the single sense of walking, the act of such locomotion 
with no slightest suggestion of either terminus. The sense of the Arabic 
bears no relation to the Samoan. It is only in Efate that the two signifi- 
cations are brought together so that a transition might be possible. If 
the two words are formally identifiable Efate has the walking sense. 
Unfortunately our author's propensity to make out his case at any cost 
is now so well comprehended that little dependence can be placed in his 
ingeniously devised transition through "proceed" to "go away." 



DATA AND NOTES. 211 

Ii8. 

suli na, shoot (as of a banana), offspring (of man) ; sulia, to have shoots. 

Samoa: suli, shoot of a banana, son of a chief. Tonga: huli, a 
plant, a sapHng, a shoot (as huli fuji, the shoot of the banana). 
Nine: huli, young seed plants of the taro. Hawaii: huli, the 
name of taro tops for planting. Maori : /iztri, seed. Rapanui: 
huri, a stalk. Mangareva: huri, banana shoot. 

Viti : suli, a banana sucker. 

Mota Maligo: suliu, a sucker from roots, a shoot from tubers. 
Mota Veverau: sului, id., and children, offspring. 

Hebrew : neser, a sprout, shoot, offspring. 

119. 

tafa, a hill, lit. that which goes up or is high ; high, above. 

Samoa : tafa, the side of a hill. Rapanui : taha, to lean, to incline ; 
tahataha, boundary, frontier; hakataha, to turn aside, to decline, 
to be on the side. 
Tigre: day aba, to go up. Ethiopic: diba, above. 

A squinting etymology. 

120. 
tera, to be quick, swift. 

Samoa : telea'i, to run quickly ; teletele, to be quick, step out ; televave, 
telelise, to be very quick. Futima : telekaki, to run swiftly, 
to go with speed ; televave, one who goes swiftly. Mangareva : 
tere, to go well, to sail well. Maori: tere, to move swiftly, to 
be quick. Sikayana: tere, to run. Fotuna: no-tere, id. 

Rapanui: tere, id.; hakatere, to urge to haste. 
Arabic : darra, to run vehemently or swiftly, to turn a spindle very 
swiftly. 

EFATE-MELANESIAN-VITI-POLYNESIAN. 
121. 

barab, baraf, barau, baram, long, high (as a hill). 
Tonga: baleva, tall, long, overgrown. 
Viti : mbalavu, long, generally of space. 
Malo: barauo, long, wide. Makelula Uripiv: periv, id. 

Our author's association of this with laba (307) expresses his curiosity 
rather than his acumen. The identification as here set down seems excel- 
lent ; it certainly bears very prettily upon the Viti track and its extension 
to Nuclear Polynesia in Tonga rather than in Samoa. 

122. 

bi, fi, reflexive preformative. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea : fe, reciprocal prefix. Cf . Maori 

whe in wheanganga. 
Viti : vei, reflexive prefix. Rotuma : hoi. 



212 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Arag, Nggela, Vaturanga, Bugotu : vei, reflexive prefix. Wango, 
Saa : hei. Ulawa : hai. Fagani : fai. Roro : bat. Kabadi : 
vat. Sinaugoro, Keapara, Kabadi, Hula : ve. Galoma : be. 
Pokau : m. Duke of York : we. Motu : he. Nengone : e. 
Mota, Merlav, Retan: var. Pala: har. New Britain, Bara- 
von: war. Kabakada: wara. Lakon: va'. Motlav, Pak, 
Leon, Vuras, Mosin, Alo Teqel, Gog, Norbarbar, IvO : ver. Volow : 
vear. Ortiba: vui. Maewo: vagal. 
We have several elements in this problem which detailed examination 
will tend to simplify. 

(i) The Nuclear Polynesian type, fe. In Melanesia this is found in 
Efat6 bi, fi; in Duke of York we; in several variants in Torres Straits; 
and as an attrition fragment probably in Nengone e. 

(2) The Viti type, vei. This I regard as the same as fe but representing 
a later development, for the i-sufiix is well marked as verb-formative when 
the language is beginning to feel the need of specification in the use of the 
much including attributive (27 American Journal of Philology, 378). 

Its fullest form is in Viti, Arag, Nggela, Vaturanga, Bugotu, vei; thence 
to Wango, Saa, hei. 

A second series is Fagani fai, Ulawa hai. 

With the single exception of Arag in the New Hebrides to serve as a 
link these forms are all from the Solomons, with New Guinea offshoots of 
Kabadi vai, and Roro bai. 

Rotuma hoi is the second element in yet a third series, the spirant form 
with this vowel nowhere appearing. 

(3) We now have a widespread suite with a second consonant. For 
this reason we must dissociate it from the foregoing. It does not come 
over into Polynesia with the slightest trace of the second consonant. Yet 
it is possible that it represents an original from which the foregoing derive 
by abrasion. 

Its fullest form is in New Guinea in Kabakada wara. 

With abrasion of the final vowel we have Mota, Merlav, Retan var; New 
Britain, Baravon war; Pala har. In Volow it is a characteristic peculiarity 
to introduce e before a in a closed syllable; its vear serves as a transition 
form to Motlav, Pak, Leon, Vuras, Mosin, Alo Teqel, Gog, Norbarbar, Lo, 
ver. The Lakon va' is a degeneration of var, dependent on the language 
peculiarity which Dr. Codrington records ' 'at the end of words ris not trilled 
and sometimes with abrupt pronunciation is not heard;" it may be taken 
as the transition stage from the forms with two consonants to the Poly- 
nesian type. This suite is found in the Banks Group, New Britain and 
New Guinea. 

Omba vui is not explained in our vocabularies. If it be permissible to 
regard the u as functioning as semivowel w, then vwi might be regarded as 
associable with Efate bi, fi, which also shows an uncertainty in striking the 
exact sound of the labial. From its close neighborhood to Arag, which has 
vei, Omba might be expected to show some form of this type. 

The Maewo vagal seems an utter anomaly. Dr. Codrington says "it is 
not clear what vagal may be." It will be seen that va-ga-l suggests the 
common Banks Group type var with an infix; but we have no authority 



DATA AND NOTES. 213 

to assume that infixation is a formative principle so remote from Indonesia. 
I note one more statement by Codrington: "the syllables are mostly open; 
indeed, though it is common to close a syllable, it is hardly looked upon as 
correct." If this has any bearing on the problem it may serve to indicate 
a probability that vagal is loan material. 

123. 

lalo na, lalu na, the belly, the front, the under side (as of cloth). 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea, Hawaii: lalo, below, beneath, 
under, down. Nuguria: hakalalo, south. Maori, Tahiti, 
Rarotonga, Tongarewa, Bukabuka, Mangareva, Paumotu, Sika- 
yana, Aniwa, Fotima, Nukuoro: raro, id. Rapanui: raro, 
under, leeward. Aniwa : iraro, iroro, under, below. Nukuoro : 
kiraro, below ; kailalopoli, mean, stingy. Marquesas : ao, below, 
beneath, under, down. Moiki: ngango, id. 

Viti: ird, kird, maira (rd), below. 

Mota: lalangai, the imder side; alalange, ilalange, talalange, under. 
Motlav, Volow, Pak, Mosin, Alo Teqel: lalange, id. Lakon: 
lalnga, id. Vuras: alalnge, id. Re tan, Sasar: lalange, id. 
Leon : Manga, id. Merlav, Gog : lang, id. Vaturanga : i lao, id. 

While I have followed our author's suggestion of identification and have 
carried it out to the limit of my material I remain quite unconvinced that 
there is anything valid in the Efate identification. To begin with, the Poly- 
nesian material all means below, the Fijian below, the Melanesian under, 
except that in Mota appears also the signification of the under side which 
Dr. Macdonald ascribes to his Efat(^. Next, so far as concerns lalo the 
belly we shall have no hesitation in bringing it into association with Samoa 
alo belly in the courtesy speech, for not only have we elaborated the prob- 
abilities of frontal abrasion, but in Efat6 we have also alo (48) belly as a 
variant of lalo. 

Assuming that Efate has a lalo which has so much of the "below" sense 
as is suggested by "the under side (as of cloth)" we now proceed to the 
examination of its identification. 

The identification in that sense is satisfactory so far as relates to the 
Polynesian. In Melanesia it will be found in Vaturanga lao, for an inner 
/ is frequently dropped in that speech in words where Nggela retains it, a 
statement by Dr. Codrington which may lead to the assumption of Nggela 
lalo, although my material is empty at that point. 

The Viti forms are all compounds on the base ra. This at best is but 
a half of lalo, and we do not claim the identification as more than a sug- 
gestion. The Viti form is not identified in Melanesia either. 

The remaining Melanesian forms are all from the Banks Group and are 
clearly variants of one stock. The fullest forms are Mota lalangai, lalange; 
Leon lalanga; Retan, Sasar lalange. The second group is characterized by 
obliteration of the second vowel — Lakon lalnga; Motlav, Pak, Volow, Mosin, 
Alo Teqel lalnge; Vuras alalnge of the latter type. If we regard Merlav, 
Gog lang as a decrepit form of this stock we leave this collection a com- 
pact group identifiable with nothing in sight. It resembles lalo only in the 
possession of two I's and the a, it nowhere suggests the on which Poly- 



214 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

nesia is united, and it leaves final nga or ng unrepresented in any region 
beyond, unless the ephelkustic na of Efate lalo na, which our author does 
not explain, is really radical, in which case lalona represents the transition 
type from lalanga to lalo. 

Another explanation is equally considerable. Assume that Merlav long 
is not a broken-down form but the simple stem lal. The l-ng mutation is 
represented in our material solely by this possible instance. The mutation, 
however, occurs. It is found in two languages and both in this region, 
although they are Polynesian inclusions or verge islands be it said, namely 
in Aniwa (though not in this word) and in Moiki. The Moiki word is 
ngango, as cited above. To be sure Merlav employs the ng change for but 
one of its Vs. If this be considered reasonable lalanga and its devolved 
forms are then reduplications. This explanation is deficient in regard of 
the characteristic Polynesian o. 

Neither suggestion is one to be held satisfactory. The identification 
is sadly imperfect. 

124. 

mabwe, the chestnut tree and its fruit. 

Tahiti: mape, the chestnut {Inocarpus edulis.) Maori: of. mapau, 

mapou, mapauriki, tree names. 
Viti : mamba, the name of a tree, fruit edible. 
Aneityum: mop(o), the chestnut. Malo: mabue, id. 

125. 
tobu na, grandfather, ancestor. 

Samoa: tupunga, ancestor. Tonga: tubunga, tubuanga, ancestor. 
Futuna: tupuna, grandparents. Tahiti: tupuna, ancestor, 
grandfather. Mangareva : tupuna, grandparents, great uncle, 
great aunt. Nine, Mangaia, Marquesas, Paumotu: tupuna, 
ancestor. Rapanui: tupuna, tapuna, id. Hawaii: kupuna, 
ancestor, grandparent. Uvea: tupuanga, parent. Fotuna: 
bua, maternal grandparent ; rufeitupuna, grandfather and grand- 
son. Nuguria: tipuna, mother-in-law. 

Viti: tumbuna, ancestor, grandmother. 

Motu: tubuna, grandparents, ancestor. New Britain: tubuna, 

ancestor. Tanna: tupu{n), grandparent. Mota: tupui, 
one of the second generation in the ascending or descending 
line, ancestor or descendant. Malo: tubu, maternal grand- 
parents, paternal grandfather. Baki: feMmftito, id. Aneityum: 
etpon, grandparents, ancestor. Malekula : apu, grandparents. 
Pala : tubu, grandfather. Tubetube : tubu, grandparents. 

The identification is good throughout. In the Polynesian languages 
which employ both ng and n the form in n is used except in Samoa, Uvea 
and Tonga tupunga, etc., which are in form derivative verbal nouns from 
tupu to grow but otherwise are anomalous. The same suggestion appears 
in Mota, Malo, Baki, Pala and perhaps Malekula. Bfate falls in with the 
n-forms, provided that the na be radical. 



DATA AND NOTES. 216 

126. 
tokalau, an easterly wind. 

Samoa : to'elau, the northeast wind. Futuna, Nine, Tonga : tokelau, 
the north. Nuguria: tokerau, southeast, the trade wind. 

Maori: tokerau, eastern. Mangaia: tokerau, the northwest 

wind. Bukabuka: apatokerau, north. Paumotu: tokerau, 
the north; patokerau, the northeast. Rapanui: tokerau, air, 
wind, fresh breeze, a squall, the noise of the wind, a season, 
south; tokerau aho, west. Tahiti: toerau, the west or north- 
west. Tonga: apatoerau, the south. Mangareva: tokorau, 
the north. Moriori : tokorau, a wind name of uncertain appli- 
cation. Marquesas : to^oaw, the north or northeast. Hawaii: 
koolau, the east. Fakaafo: Tui-Tokelau, a divinity. 

Viti: tokalau, the east wind; tokalaulutu, north or northeast; toka- 
lauvualiku, north or northwest. 

Aneityum: na-tokarau, the northwest wind. Moanus: tolau, the 
north wind. Santo: tokalau, northeast wind. 

Our author proposes the derivation tok (toko) to remain, alau on the sea. 
These respective elements have the assigned meanings in his Efate diction- 
ary. From the Bfat^ point of view it is a definition even if it does not 
particularly define. So far as I know it is the only definition, for the word 
is quite incomprehensible in its Polynesian elements. On his element tok 
consult 357, where it will be seen that in Polynesian it may very doubtfully 
be recognized in Samoan and in a sense that would in no way fit this wind 
or compass rhumb, and that in Viti it is primarily a posture in sitting. 
His element a-lau, lau the sea, he identifies in Malo a lau, Epi lau and 
Malay latit the sea. To which I may add that in Viti lau is the designation 
of the windward islands opposed to ra (ra down) the leeward islands, on 
either side of the central part of the archipelago which bears in that sense 
the name Lomaiviti. The word lau in the sea sense does not occur in 
Polynesia, nor do I recall it elsewhere in Melanesia. 

If the derivation of the word lies in mystery, so is its use lacking what 
we should call precision. 

But first the mutations, the second vowel being critical. 

Forms in a: Viti, Efate, Aneityum, Santo — all Melanesian. 

Forms in e: Samoa, Futuna, Niue, Tonga, Maori, Mangaia, Bukabuka, 

Paumotu, Tahiti, Fakaafo, Nuguria, Rapanui. 
Forms in 0: Mangareva, Marquesas, Moriori, Hawaii. 
(Modnus irregular.) 

Now we shall examine the sense, whether of wind or of direction in 
general. 

North quadrant (from northeast to northwest by the north) : Viti, 
Samoa, Futuna, Niue, Tonga, Mangaia, Bukabuka, Paumotu, 
Tahiti, Mangareva, Marquesas. 
East quadrant : Maori, Efat6, Hawaii. 

South quadrant : Tonga, for comparison with Bukabuka and Paumotu 
shows that the prefix, of wholly uncertain signification, does not 
avail to establish the direction within 180°; and Rapanui. 



216 THE POI,YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

West quadrant : Tahiti, and Rapanui with a determinant word. 
Moriori uncertain. 

The only deduction we can draw from this is that the two extremes of 
Polynesian settlement are in accord in fixing the sense in the east. Yet 
the accord is only a seeming one, as we shall next see. 

In all the South Sea islands we find four cardinal points : uta, shoreward ; 
tai, seaward ; sake, up ; lalo, down. The latter pair are used in two dimen- 
sions: in a vertical plane their directions are absolute, up and down; in 
a horizontal plane their directions fluctuate, for sake is always up the wind 
and therefore windward no matter how the wind may chop and change, 
and lalo is leeward. The vta~tai direction may vary through opposite 
semicircles beginning at any point and with a range of i8o°. We may not 
quite say that it adjusts itself always to the position in reference to the 
nearest visible sea of the speaker in each act of speaking, although it very 
frequently does so adjust itself. But for every little village community 
it does establish itself with reference to its own cove and there is no com- 
pass agreement on even the smallest island. The locus of the maximum 
discordance would be a town built on the center of a circular island, in 
which case every direction would be tai and there could be no uta. Thus 
it will be seen that tai and uta may under certain conditions coincide with 
sake and lalo, yet on the opposite shore of the same island they would be 
in diametric disagreement. This digression is introduced to make it clear 
that we have no positive direction sense by which to rate a norm for the 
tokelau sense of direction. 

I incline to the opinion that the solution will be found to lie somewhere 
in relation to the one fixed index of direction in the tropical Pacific, the 
trade wind. This is seen in the Samoan name of the fair weather season, 
the Vaito'elau, the "time of tokelaus," namely, the months in which the 
trade blows regularly every day long from east-southeast. Let us note in 
how many instances we can see an easterly sense: Efate, Samoa, Maori, 
Paumotu with a qualification, Marquesas, Hawaii. In the Marquesas, Samoa 
and the Paumotu this is clearly not the trade wind but at right angles 
thereto, yet such breezes are rare in the trade wind season. This makes 
it appear that the direction is not the wind's eye, yet that it is in some way 
associated therewith as a departure. The Maori must owe its easterly 
sense to the signification brought with the word from its earlier home, for 
New Zealand lies outside the trades and in the region of the westerly vari- 
ables. I can not pretend to solve the problem. But I am sure that the 
solution will be found to lie in the identification of the tokelau direction in 
some angular displacement or departure from the prevailing trade wind in 
each group— or in some point from which its people migrated with the word 
already oriented — and this angle most probably has to do with the sailing 
quality of their canoes, in other words, the number of points by which they 
can lie the wind. 



DATA AND NOTES. 217 

EFATE-VITI-POLYNESIAN-MALAY. 

127. 

alialia, insane; lala, an idiot, a fool, one demented. 

Samoa : lielievale, to boast without reason. Nine : lialiapon, giddy. 

Uvea: fakalialia, deformed. 
Viti : Italia, foolish, absurd, crazy, out of one's mind, an idiot. 
Malagasy: adala, foolish, infatuated, a lunatic, a fool. 

The identification is quite satisfactory so far as it has to do with Italia 
forms. I can not see that Efate lala belongs here, and certainly the mere 
/ is not sufficient to establish a Malagasy relationship. 

128. 
bwelii ki, bwelu, beluuelu, to fold, to double. 

Samoa: mapelu, to bend, to stoop, to bow down, persons stooping 
with age, housebeams sagging under weight. Tonga: pelu, 
bebelu, to fold, to crease. Futuna : pelu, peluki, to fold. Uvea : 
pelu, id., mapelu, to bend, to bow. Hawaii: pelu, to double 
over, to bend, to fold. Rapanui : peu, axe, adze. 
Viti: mbeluka, kanibelu, to bend, to curve. 
Malay: valuna, folded, doubled. 
The Proto-Samoan radical is peluk. 

The Samoan mapelu is pelu with the condition prefix; pelu is found in 
tise in the sense of bent, crooked. Pratt indicates pelu, a sword, as intro- 
duced ; I incline to the opinion that it is not the word but the specific appli- 
cation which has been introduced, for my Samoan instructors told me that 
the first swords ever seen were curved (pelu) on the edge and hence the 
name. But as the first swords seen were undoubtedly cutlasses and not 
scimitars an armorer will have to pass on the question of fact. Pelu'i, 
also introduced, is wholly introduced, word as well as meaning, for it is 
clearly a transliteration of the English word billhook. Samoa and Viti 
lack the precise signification of pelu as it elsewhere occurs, yet not on that 
account is the identification at all doubtful. 

The Malay identification shows that the word had already been abraded 
before the Indonesians took it from the Polynesian remnant, for only in 
this state could the Malay treat it in accordance with his own methods of 
word formation and add the -na. 

129. 
bungafunga, fungafunga, bungo-ni, to be awake, to awaken. 

Samoa, Tonga, Uvea, Futuna: fafangu, to rouse from sleep, to 

awaken. Fotuna: no-fagona, to awaken, to be awake. 
Viti: vangona, to rouse, to awaken. 
Mota : vangvangov, vavangov, to waken. 
Malagasy: fuha, awake; mifuha, to awaken. 
In view of the fact that nowhere in the Pacific areas do we find a ng-h 
mutation, and in the utter absence of possibly intermediate Indonesian 
forms, we are not warranted in accepting the proposed Malagasy identi- 
fication. 



218 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

130. 
fai, the skate. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Tahiti: fai, the sting ray (genera: Disco- 
batis, Dasyatis, Taniura, Himantura, Hypolophus, sp. pp. ; the 
type in Samoa is Himantura fai). Marquesas: hai, fai, the 
stingray. Maori: whai, id. Nukuoro: haimanu, uruhai- 
pokorua, id. 
Viti : vai, the sting ray. 
Malay: pari, the sting ray. Tagalog: pagi, id. 

We can not accept the Indonesian identification on account of the intru- 
sive consonants. 

The Nukuoro haimanu is especially interesting in connection with the 
fact that in Polynesia passim manu means bird and beast but not fish, for 
haimanu must here of marine necessity mean /lai-fish. Dr. Codrington has 
pointed out (Melanesian Languages, 56, 69) that Lakon mah means both 
bird and fish and that in Maewo and Vanua Lava as masi, mes, the same 
word is in use for fish but not for bird. Of course it is not to be understood 
that he implies that masi is a manu variant. I note, however, Aneityum 
numu, Tanna namu, Eromanga nomu, the same word and all meaning fish, 
which it would be no straining of metathesis to associate with manu. Nuku- 
oro has the wawM-fish again in manumangamanga, starfish. 

131- 
fakau, fikau, a message, messenger, ambassador, agent sent to do something 
for a chief or community ; kau, to carry. 
Samoa : 'au, to send ; fe'au, a message, to send for. Tonga : fekau, 
a command, an order. Nine: fekau, a message. Uvea: 
fekau, a servant, a messenger, to send. Fotuna : kau, to send. 
Viti: kauta, to carry. 

Java : panggawa, a noble, title of one of the five chief councillors of 
state ; gawa, to bear, to carry, to convey, to bring. 

While Java gawa does not quite accord with the Polynesian it agrees 
with Viti and Efate. But panggawa seems not to be fekau, for the term is 
menial in the Pacific and honorific in Java; furthermore in 122 we find no 
evidence that fe- appears at all in Indonesia. 

132. 
seni, a comb. 

Samoa, Futuna, Nukuoro: selu, a comb. Tonga, Uvea: helu, id. 
Nukuoro: seru, id. Nine: /^e^tt (anomalous), id. Fotuna: 
seru, id. ; ko-seserua, to comb. 

Viti: seru, a comb. 

Malay: sisir, garu, a comb. 

Note — Marquesas: heu, to scratch the ground with the hands. 
Mangareva : heru, to reject with hands and feet ; pahere, pahore, 
a comb. Paumotu: heru, to brush with the hands. Rapanui: 
heruheru, a rake. Tahiti: heru, to scratch as a hen; pahere, 
pahoro, a comb. Hawaii : helu, to scratch the earth as hens. 
Aneityum : ero, to scratch as a fowl. 



DATA AND NOTKS. 219 

Tregear (Maori Comp. Diet. s. v. weku) points out a probable inosculation 
of roots in a series veku-veu-heu-heru-huru. It is to note that the oceanic 
comb is not used to smooth the hair but, without disarranging the some- 
what intricate coiflfure, to scratch the scalp and vex its population. There 
is nothing in Polynesian which sheds any light upon the l-t mutation in 
Niue, if indeed it be permissible to associate hetu with the sehi stock. In 
the dissection of the Melanesian material a very few instances are recorded 
of l-t mutation, but they are so poorly supported as to afford little base 
for the opinion that such a change has any real standing. 

EFATE-VITI-POLYxNTESIAN-SEMITIC. 

133- 
bwase, bwasu, to break off with a snap or jerk. 

Samoa, Futuna, Niue, Tahiti, Paumotu : fati, to break, to break off 
as twigs or pieces of wood. Fo tuna, Tonga: /ajY, id. Nukuoro, 
Rapanui: hati, id. Maori: whawhati, id. Hawaii: haki, id. 
Mangareva: ati, id. Mangaia: aati, id. Marquesas : /aii, 
hati, id. 
Viti : mbasuka, mhasuraka, to break. 
Arabic : fas' s' a, to break off ; fassa, to detach, shiver off. 

There can be no doubt of identity in Efate and Viti, an identity which 
holds in respect of each of the four root sounds. 

On the other hand we have substantial unity in Polynesia and the only 
sound in which there is identity with Efate- Viti is the former vowel. We 
have no supporting instance to establish a mutation of the series Polynesian 
/ Viti mb Efate bw or b, and little more for the mutation t-s. The identi- 
fication is therefore, not cordially accepted. If the Polynesian fasi is 
regarded as homogenetic with fati I do not look upon it as a t-s mutation 
but rather regard fa as the stem modulated by each consonant in turn with 
substantial sense agreement. 

134- 
fira-ni, bifira, to supplicate, to pray. 

Futuna: pule, to pray. Tahiti, Hawaii, Rarotonga, Mangareva, 
Paumotu : pure, to pray, worship, prayer. Maori : pure, to 

utter incantations to purify. 
Viti : mbure, a temple, house for the gods. 
Hebrew : falal, to supplicate, to pray. 

135- 
ngi, ngkl, ngiki, to creak, to squeak, to moan. 

Samoa : 'i, to cry, as a fly or a bird. Rapanui : ki, to say. Tonga, 
Futuna: ki, klki, to squeak, a sharp cry or squeal. Niue: 
kiklt, to squeak. Uvea: ki, a cry. Fotuna: noh-ki, to 
whistle (bird). 
Viti : ngi, to squeak, to make a shrill noise. 
Arabic: nakka, nakik', to creak. 



220 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

136. 

(a) ngor i, kor i, to enclose or surround with a fence {nakoro). 

Samoa : 'olo, a fort, stronghold. Tonga : kolo, a fort, a town, cloth 
hung around a house in which a corpse lies. Futuna, Nine, 
Uvea : kolo, a fort, tower, citadel, castle. 

Viti: koro, a town, village, settlement. 

Arabic: higr', hogr', a fence. Ethiopic: hagar, a town, village. 
(6) koro, a halo around the moon. 

Maori : aokoro, pukoro, a halo around the moon. 

Viti: virikoro, a circle around the moon. 

Arabic : hagar a, to have a halo. 

There is complete accord from Efate through Viti to Polynesia in the 
main use of this stem and in the particular use which is set to itself apart. 
In Efat6 koro answers equally well for fence and for halo. In the marked 
advance which characterizes social life in Viti and among the Maori the 
need has been felt of qualifying koro in some distinctive manner when its 
reference is celestial. In Viti virimhai has the meaning of putting up a 
fence {mhai fence) ; viri does not appear independently in this use, but it 
is undoubtedly homogenetic with Samoan vili, which has a basic meaning 
of going around ; virikoro then signifies the ring-fence-that-goes-about, sc. 
the moon. In the Maori, aokoro is the cloud-fence. 

The Semitic here is triliteral. While the sense concord is notable, the 
form resemblance involves only the second and third Semitic consonants 
and we are left without explanation of the first, no shadow of which appears 
in our Pacific areas. 

137- 
kabu, koau, the native pudding, tied up in a bundle and cooked in the oven ; 
kof u sa, to wrap up or enclose (as a pudding in leaves to be put 
in the oven). The pudding koau is laid on a mass of leaves 
very wide and long which are rolled up or over it all aroimd 
completely enclosing it and then tied up. 

Samoa : 'ofu, food tied up in a leaf ready to cook. Tonga : kofu, 
to wrap up. Nine: kohukohu, to enclose, wrap up as in a 
taro leaf. Maori : kohu, to cook in an oven any article con- 
tained in a hollow vessel. Tahiti: ohu, food tied up and 
cooked in a bundle. Uvea : kofu, clothing. Rapanui : kahu, 
clothing, cloth. 

Viti : kovu, banana leaf in which puddings are done up. 

Arabic : kabba, to make food into balls for cooking ; kobbat, kabab', 
food so cooked ; kabkaba, to be wrapped up, enveloped. 

Our author cites koau as a dialectic form of his theme kabu, which 
hardly seems likely. The identification eastward with kovu and kofu is 
satisfactory. The clothing signification in Viti and Polynesia is derivative, 
and since that secondary sense does not appear in Efat^ it has not seemed 
necessary to give it extended consideration. 

The Arabic certainly shows resemblance in form and, so far as is admis- 
sible in a different practice of kitchen mechanics, in sense also. 



DATA AND NOTES. 221 

138. 
lako, loko, laku, loku, roko, nrok, to stoop, to be curved. 

Samoa: loWu, to bend down or around. Tonga: loku, to draw 
together, to gather in sewing, to pucker in a heap. Futuna, 
Niue : loloku, to bend, to curve. Hawaii : lou, to bend around ; 
loulou, to bend down. Maori: roku, to be weighed down, to 
decline. 

Viti: roko, a bowing posture, bent like a bow; rokota, vakarota, to 
bend a bow ; rokova, to pay respect to ; vakaroko, to bow down 
with weakness, to go stooping. 

Arabic: raka'a, roko', ruku', to stoop, to be curved or bent, to bow 
or be bent down. 

139- 
(a) nab wo, nabwoa, tamo, to smell (intransitive). Cf. 221. 

Samoa: ndmu, odor, to have a bad smell. Tonga: namu, to 
smell ; namuaa, namuku, bad in smell. Futuna : namuku, to 
smell bad. Niue : namu, a smell ; namua, bad smelling. Uvea : 
namu, nanamu, odor; namuku, a stench. Tahiti: naminami, 
stinking; namurea, savor. Nukuoro: namu, namo, a scent, 
a smell. Fotuna : ehnamu, to stink. 
(6) bwoa, bwon, odor, to emit odor. 

Samoa: poapoa, fishy smelling. Tonga: boa, the smell of fish; 
tauhoa, to scent the water with fish to catch others. Futuna : 
poa, popoa, to smell fishy. Maori : poa, to allure by bait, to 
chum. Tahiti : /)ar«/'oa, to bait for fish. Ha-waii: po, puia, 
to emit odor. Mangareva: poa, bait, oil cast on the water 
to attract fish ; akapoa, to communicate a smell of flesh to the 
water to attract fish. 

Viti : mhoi, to smell, to yield a perfume. 

Arabic : faha, to emit odor. 

In comparing bivoa and nabwoawe suspect the na to be verb-formative in 
much the same use as the no thus employed in neighboring, but far more 
distinctly Polynesian, Fotuna. Thus there can be no association of nabwoa 
with Polynesian namu. As relates to tamo, clearly not of the same stem 
as nabwoa, Nukuoro with two forms might seem to provide the transition, 
but this affects only the unaccented final vowel, the least important detail. 
This leaves us the far more difficult problem of establishing a t-n mutation. 
This does not exactly appear in the Efate material, the nearest approach 
being t-ng found in mauta-maunga (61) as this instance is solitary. So, in 
the wider Melanesian field we find but a solitary instance, namu (328) 
mosquito Alo Teqel tom. The identification is not established. 

The formal identification of bwoa with the poa of the eastern islands is 
satisfactory. We are to note that in Polynesia the sense is highly special- 
ized except in Hawaii, which, with Viti, is identical with Efate. 

140. 
nasu na, juice, that which flows out or exudes. 

Samoa: su, ngasu, wet; suxi, juice. Futuna: .yti, watery; sua, juice. 
Nukuoro : suisui, wet. Tonga : huhu, wet ; hu4i, huhun,, juice ; 



222 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

huai, to pour out; ngahu, damp, moist. Niue: huhua, liquid. 
Uvea: huai, to pour; huhua, sap. Nuguria: hua, coconut 
water. Hawaii : hu, to overflow. Tahiti : ti, to be damp, wet. 

Viti: suasua, wet, moist. 

Arabic : nazza, to exude ; nizu, flow, water. 

While there is a close association in all the material here collected we 
are to observe that in the Polynesian three forms exist, that Samoa and 
Tonga possess all three, that Futuna alone has two. These three forms 
are su, sua, ngasu. 

su: In the sense of wet this is found in Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Tahiti. 
The Hawaiian hu is in form a variant of su, but while the sense has to do 
with liquids it does not conform to the meaning of this stem as elsewhere 
found. Nukuoro suisui I regard as a derivative of su by means of the 
verb-formative i. 

sua: Is found in Samoa, Futuna, Tonga as juice ; in Uvea specialized as sap ; 
in Niue as liquid or as juice; in Nuguria still more highly specialized as 
the water of the coconut. The Tonga and Uvea huai, a verb-derivative 
of the sua stem, means to pour; this is comparable with the Hawaiian hu 
as showing probably the coming up to the surface of a primordial general 
signification which elsewhere does not break through the highly particular 
sense, and this will be taken to include the Niue in the sense of liquid. 

ngasu: This is confined to Samoa and Tonga and has the particular 
meaning of su, wet, damp, moist. 

The Viti is of the sua form but of the su sense. 

The Ffate is of the ngasu form but of the sua sense. 

The manner of the interrelation of these three forms is by no means simple. 
If su meant wetness then sua would follow in the adjectival sense of being 
wet, in the common Samoan system of formation. We see here the oppo- 
site movement, which is anomalous; yet it will serve to fix the position 
of Viti as regular. Su is clearly the basic element of all these words which 
carry the common sense. I am not familiar with any use of a prefixed 
nga which has but the object of forming merely ornamental compounds, 
for ngasu equals sU, and in Tonga ngahu equals huhu. In Efate nasu we 
note that it is impossible that it is na-su, for na is expressly not the article. 
We have but one other instance (125) of the Efat6 n representing a Poly- 
nesian ng. 

The Samoan suati is the equivalent of this Tonga-Uvea huai. The form 
of the Viti vakasuasuataka, to wet, gives ground for the impression that the 
t is radical, vanishing somewhat unusually from huai. We should then 
have the stem suat and by progressive degradation reach sua and su. 

Provisionally we may hold nasu to be the remnant of a parent nasiiat 
which has undergone in general an abrasion at each end. In this view it 
seems particularly difficult to understand how the Semitic, instinct with 
the zeal for triliteralism, should have come to sacrifice the already existing 
third consonant and then have reached exactly the same stage of demoli- 
tion as in Efat6 and the heart of Nuclear Polynesia, and all this without 
having left a trace in crowded Melanesia and Indonesia which intervene. 
A resemblance rather than an identification. 



DATA AND NOTES. 223 

141. 

(a) rat i, tat i, nrat, to loosen, to unite. 

Samoa: tala, tatala, to loosen, to untie. Tonga: tatala, to tear 
off, to separate what adheres, to open, to rend. Futuna: 
tala, tatala, to loosen, to untie, to disunite. Hawaii: kala, id. 
Maori: tatara, loose, untied. Tahiti: tatara, to loosen, to untie. 
Nuguria: taraki, to open. Marquesas: taataa, separated, 
loosened. 

Viti : ndala, to be open (of a shellfish) ; ndalanga, to open one's 
mouth. 
(6) mirati, minratinrat, to be loose, untied. 

Samoa: matala, to be open (as a leaf), untied, unloosed. Tonga: 
matala, open, expanded (as a leaf or flower), free from restraint. 
Futuna: matala, open, untied. Niue: matala, to open, as a 
flower or leaf. Hawaii : makala, to open, to untie, to unloose. 
Maori: matara, untied, untwisted. Tahiti: matara, untied, 
disentangled, loosened. Rapanui: matara, patara, to rmtie, to 
acquit, to clear; patala, to let loose. Mangareva: akamakara, 
to cut the first thread so as to unravel anything. Mangaia : 
matara, to be loosened. Paumotu : hakamataratara, to unloose. 

Viti : mathala, clear, plain, understandable, to be unfolded as a leaf. 

Hebrew: nat'ar, hitlr, to loose. 

The metathesis is evident. 

As between the groups of words here assembled the Efate mi is the 
equivalent of the general '}na of condition. In the Polynesian of each 
group we find no further evolution of meaning than will readily be reducible 
to the basic signification upon which Efate and Samoa are in exact accord. 

The Viti merits consideration. We have instances in which the Poly- 
nesian t becomes the Viti nd; we have instances of the t-th mutation ; this 
so far as I can recall is the only instance in which t becomes both nd and th. 
From the instances presented in this work we might be led to the conclusion 
that Mnitial becomes nd and ^medial becomes th. That this is not the 
case is doubly instanced in words not included within the essential limit 
of this work; for example, tea-thea, mutu-mundu, fiti-vindt. We can but 
note the anomaly. 

The final vowel is weakened in Efate and tends to vanish. In the dia- 
lectic forms we see a tendency toward nasal reinforcement of the l-r, which 
is unusual. The dialectic form tati may indicate an l-t mutation from the 
tala stem or it may be an r-t mutation from the metathetic Efate rati stem. 
We have no record of such l-t mutation between Polynesia and Efate; in 
the wider Melanesian field we find it in but a solitary instance sala (339) 
path Bugotu hatautu. I incline, therefore, to consider it due to merely 
local variation. 

142. 

ror, lor, the oily juice of grated coconut used to moisten or fatten puddings. 

Samoa : lolo, oil, the coconut prepared for making scented oil ; loloi, 

a dish of taro and coconut juice. Tonga, Futima, Niu6, Uvea, 

Nukuoro, Nuguria: lolo, oil. Hawaii: lolo, brains, marrow. 



224 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Maori : roro, id. Tahiti : roro, the brains of mankind. Mangaia : 
roro, brains. Mangareva: roro, soft, pure milk from the breast 
or from coconuts, the skull, the head. Paumotu: takaroro^ 
headache. Rapanui: roro, brain, skull. 

Viti: lolo, milk of the coconut squeezed from scraped kernel. 

Arabic: rd'a, to moisten bread with fat. 

In Bfate and Nuclear Polynesia we find complete accord upon the par- 
ticular signification of the word. In the Polynesia of the Tongafiti swarm 
we find the word identical in form, but in sense in complete accord upon a 
different signification, to which brain meaning the ultimate migrations have 
added in Hawaiian and Maori the meaning of marrow. Along the Tonga- 
fiti track the word for oil is sinu, which appears in Nuclear Polynesia con- 
currently with lolo, and in the western verge in Ticopia. Now in Nuclear 
Polynesia the word for brain is derived from the coconut but from another 
part, the spongy substance (uto) which in an old nut occupies the space 
where the water has been : Tonga, Uvea, uto ; Nine, uhoniu o he ulu (coconut 
sponge of the head) : Samoa, uto, the head as a term of abuse, while for brains 
yet another coconut product is employed, one advanced in manufacture, 
fai'ai the cooked juice, which in Futuna faikai is restricted to the literal 
sense. This uto also signifies marrow in Tonga, Uvea, Viti {uto ni sui). 

We next pass to the southeastern terminus of all possible migration, 
Mangareva and the Paumotu. Here we pick up once more the coconut 
milk in Mangareva roro and find it extended to the human breast. Con- 
joined with this we find a strange variation from the Tongafiti sense, a 
passage from the soft parts to the hard, from the contents to the calvaria. 
Here the word uto means marrow, utuhupoko brains. Altogether a strange 
fact and remote spot in which to find an inosculation of Proto-Samoan and 
Tongafiti. Rapanui unites the soft and the hard parts in this word. 

The lolo reappears in such parts of Nuclear Polynesia as have the animal 
as a componentof Samoa palolo, Tongabalolo, Viti mbalolo. I cite a note on 
this subject which I wrote out for Dr. William McMichael Wood worth, wha 
identified the palolo as the posterior epitokal part of Eunice viridis (Gray) : 

Stair's derivation from pa'a-lolo, luscious crab, is out of all consideration; it is on all 
fours with the classic definition of a crab as a small red fish that walks backward, for- 
pa'a (paka) could not in the Samoan system of word structure undergo such a syncopa- 
tion as to cut itself in two. As the bit beastie is in no sense a crab, and I must claim 
for my islanders that their intelligence is sufficiently high to prevent them from putting 
two such dissimilar animals together, so in turn is lolo not luscious. The organs of 
sense perception by which the Samoan apperceives lolo lie, not in the peripheral nerve 
endings of the tongue, but of the fingers ; it is a matter of touch and not of taste such as 
luscious principally connotes. I got a very instructive glimpse at this word from my 
cook boy and a dish of vermicelli soup. After it had served my uses the tureen went 
back to the kitchen. I found the servitor dabbling his fingers in the dish, which he 
pronounced to be fa'alolo. I regard the primal signification as one of consistency, some- 
what custardy, a substance partially solid that may to a certain extent be grasped in 
the fingers yet which seems to slip out and elude the grasp. That, it will be noticed, 
is a thread that can be run through all the significations. It applies equally to the 
palolo as you feel it in the water on the great day of its appearance. In the slightly 
specialized sense of slippery it applies similarly to its other two compounds in the 
Samoan, ngalolo and umelolo, both being fishes and the latter a variety of Naseus 
Uturatus or unicornis. 



DATA AND NOTES. 225 

143- 
suki, to stick, to stab. 

Samoa : su'i, to sew, to stitch. Nukuoro : suki, to pierce, to stab. 
Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea : huki, to pierce, to prick, to punc- 
ture, to lance. Maori: huki, pierced. Marquesas: huki, a 
small stick used to strengthen thatch. Rapanui: huki, to 
transpierce. Mangareva : huki, to pierce (said of lightning) ; 
ukiuki, piercing, lancing. Paumotu: hukihuki, to bore, to 
perforate. Tahiti : hui, to pierce, to prick, to lance. Hawaii : 
huiuna, a seam, a uniting by sewing together. 

Viti : thuki, a digging stick. 

Lambell, King, Lamassa : suki, to sew. Lambell, Lamassa : suki, 
to prick. Moanus : susui, to sew. 

Arabic : s'akka, to transfix with a spear. 

The root suk retains its k except in Tahiti and Hawaii, where this loss 
is normal, and in Moanus. Our data instance two stems in Moanus involv- 
ing k; in this instance fe-medial vanishes; in 305, there initial, it remains; 
of course these two instances are not sufficient to establish the usage. 

144. 
takutaku, to speak. 

Samoa : ta'u, to tell, to mention, to announce, to certify, to acknowl- 
edge. Tonga : taku, to call by, to designate ; takun, to mention, 
to call by name. Rapanui : taku, to predict. Maori : takutaku, to 
threaten, to recite imprecations. Fotuna : no-tukua, to confess. 
Viti : tukuna, to report, to tell. 
Arabic : nataka, to speak. 

The Fotuna word is no more divergently specialized away from the plain 
sense of Ffate and Viti than is the Tonga or the Maori ; it is particularly 
interesting because it confirms the Viti vowel plan. 

In the proposed Semitic identification a syllable is supposed to have been 
worn away by frontal abrasion in passing from a common parent to the 
Pacific, or the Arabic has picked up a syllable. Without confirmatory 
evidence of intermediate forms this assumption is too violent. 

145- 
tui, a chief. 

Samoa : tui, a chief, king. Tonga : tu'i, a king, a governor. Futuna : 
tui, god, supreme ruler, king (of god only). Nine: tui, a high 
chief. Uvea: tui, king. 
Viti : tui, king or principal chief. 

Arabic : waddu, watadu, watada, to fix, stake, make firm. Hebrew : 
yated, a pin, a nail, a prince. 

No explanation is offered of the anomalous ' in Tonga tu'i. The char- 
acter is seldom used in Tongan and is not noted at all in Shirley Baker's 
grammar of the language. How inconsistent with himself he is in regard 
of this character in the dictionary is exhibited in this suite : ma'u to get 



226 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

(Samoa maua), maugataa hard to get, ma'ugofie easy to get. It seems to 
me that he has inserted ' into tu'i in order to differentiate that word to the 
eye from five other meanings of hd. Those of us who had the pleasure of 
knowing Tonga under that polemical missionary-statesman will have no 
difficulty in comprehending why he should see fit to accentuate the ruling 
power. Other than this slight visible but inaudible deviation the word is 
identical throughout Nuclear Polynesia and in Efate, to which it is limited. 
It can have no possible connection with Semitic words for stake. 

146. 

tuku, to go down, to sink down, to lower. 

Among the many uses of the apparently cognate Polynesian tuku 1 select 
only such as concord with the Efate tuku, for a close study of the Samoan 
tu'u (yielding no selection for this purpose) leads to the feeling that it is 
the remnant of several dissimilar stems. 

Maori: tuku, to subside, to settle down. Tahiti: tuuttiu, to slacken 
or ease a rope. Hawaii : kuu, to let down, to slacken. Tonga : 
tuku, to slacken, to let go as a rope; tukutuku, to sink in the 
sea. Futuna: tuku, to put down. Niue: tuku, to bury. 
Rarotonga : tuku, to let down, to let out, to drop down. Manga- 
reva : tuku, to throw the fishing net or fillet. Paumotu : tuku, 
to lay down. Sikayana : tuku, to put down. Nukuoro : tuku, 
to permit, to allow. Manahiki, Fakaafo: tuku, to place. 
Nuguria : tuku, to set. Rapanui : tuku, to give, to accord. 

Viti : tukutha, to let go, to slacken a rope ; vakatukutha, to let down 
in a basket. 

Hebrew: s'uah, to sink down. Arabic: sah'a, sah'a, tah'a, t'ah'a, id. 

EFATE-MELANESIAN-POLYNESIAN-SEMITIC. 

147- 
bano, to go, to go off or away. 

Samoa : fano, passing along. Tonga : fano, to go, used in reference 
to small fish going in shoals. Futuna : fano, to go, to depart. 
Niue : fano, to go, to walk ; fenonga, a journey. Tahiti : fano, 
to set sail, to depart. Paumotu : fano, to set sail. Aniwa, 
Sikayana, Vate: fano, to go. Nukuoro: hano atu, to go, to 
depart; hano saine, to go around. Nuguria: uhano, to go. 
Maori : whano, to go on. Tongarewa : hana, to go. Mangareva : 
ano, to appear. Uvea: fangona (metath. fanonga) road, path, 
to go a journey. Fotuna : no-fano, to walk, to go. 
Baki, Epi: mbano, to go. Meli, Fagani: fano, id. Maewo, Malo, 
Baki, Mota Veverau, Motlav, Vuras, Merlav, Gog, Lakon, Santo, 
Vaturanga, Bugotu: vano, id. Volow: vono, id. Malekula, 
Marina, Omba, Arag, Mota Veverau, Volow, Leon,Sasar, Mosin, 
Alo Teqel, Norbarbar, Maewo: van, id. King: vanwin, to 
come. Lo: ven, to go. Bierian Epi: nibene, id. Tanna: 
(t)uven, id. Eromanga: ve, id. Mota Mahgo, Ambrym, 



DATA AND NOTES. 227 

Sesake, Nggela, Belaga, Pak: va, id. Aneityum: apan, han, id. 
Pala: feaw, id. Dukeof York, Matupit: •w^aw, id. Kabakada, 
Matupit, Baravon : wana, id . Lambell : han, id . King : ivuan, id. 
Norbarbar: vana, a going. Vuras, Gog, Lakon: vanog, id. 
Motlav: navnog, id. Tangoan Santo: thano, to go. 
Hebrew: panah, to turn the back, to turn to go. 

See note ii. 

With the readily adjustable exception of the metathetic form in Uvea the 
Polynesian is a unit and in perfect identification with Efate bano. Other 
Efat^ forms are banomai, bandmai, banimai, compounds with directive mai; 
banotu, binotl, bdnats, bmdts, compounds with directive atu, with which our 
author most cryptically includes binen, baina, notu, net; ba-ki, which he 
says is "contracted for" ban, bano, while ba (ii) is not. 

In considering the word in Melanesia we observe that there is a partition 
into two markedly unequal areas according as the radical vowel is a or e, 
to which is to be added the single instance of Volow which has o for a 
(neutral vowel). 

The o-series has a wide range among the labials from b to v, but the forms 
in V are far the most widely spread. The onlyexception to this vertical muta- 
tion is the Tangoan Santo involving a f-th or horizontal mutation, that is 
from labial to lingual, a change of which we have no other example, yet in 
this case it seems quite correct. Aneityum, Pala, Lambell han, according to 
my principle of the aspiration, is a vertical mutation. It maybe that in this 
we see a transition form to Tangoan Santo thano; a labial h reached verti- 
cally would in no way, save with the resources of comparative philology, 
be distinguishable from a lingual h, and for the change from this h vertically 
downward to th we have abundant evidence (17 Journal of the Polynesian 
Societ}'', 160). The mutation to w is abundantly supported and is all but 
vertical; it is found only in the gate by which the Samoa track leaves 
Indonesia, and, disregarding the extra prefix, which is probably formative, 
I incline to regard the vu of King ivuan as but a reinforced w. In Kaba- 
kada, Matupit, Baravon wana we shall best regard the final vowel as an 
o-a change within the triangle of the neutral vowel ; the a-final in Norbarbar 
vana is formative and establishes the verbal noun of van to go, as appears 
above. In Vuras, Gog, Lakon, Motlav the final g is formative of the verbal 
noun; the Motlav is na-vno~g, article-stem-sufiix. There remain for con- 
sideration a few irregular forms. Aneityum apan we include because our 
author includes it as an identification, which it is not. Apan means to go, 
apam means to come ; the merest tyro should recognize the common stem 
as apa, far removed from vano and further exhibited in apahai to go land- 
ward and apaahni to go everywhere. He quite overlooked, or did not know 
where to look for han, which is the true identification. The King vanwin 
contains the vano stem together with an extra element which in the paucity 
of our material from that center of New Ireland culture we may not 
comprehend. 

The smaller e-series runs through its simple course of mutation and abra- 
sion and calls for no more extended comment than to call attention to Tanna 
{t)uven as a mixed form. 



228 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

We have now left for consideration the va and the ve. In each case 
we have a record of the abrasion of final vowel and then of the consonant 
left final, thus there is no reason in etjnnology why we should not regard 
them as regular mutations of the fano stem. Since Mota shows vano in 
Veverau and va in Maligo, where the differences are no more than dialectic 
and of neighbor dialects at that, we are forced to the conclusion that va is 
from the fano stem despite the efforts of our author to confuse the record 
as shown in ii. 

We are not left to the compelling power of resemblance visualized to 
comprehend Dr. Macdonald's indentification of the fano stem with the 
Hebrew panah. Here is his extended argument in full as spread upon the 
record under the classification of "triliterals doubly weak, that is, with 
two weak letters or quiescents." 

' ' Bfate bano-mai or bana-mai, to come ; banats, i.e., ban ats, to go ; Maori 
whanatu; Efate bano, to go; Maori whano, to verge toward, to go on, 
proceeding toward; Hebrew panah, to turn, to turn oneself, to turn the 
back, to turn in order to go anyTvhere. Thus banotu, whanatu, equals to 
turn, going away, or outward, and bano-mai, bano-be, equals to turn 
coming, to come." Any person who can find herein the common term 
wherein to turn equals to go will have no greater difficulty in finding in fano 
a triliteral, even though two of its letters are "weak or quiescent." 

148. 

batu, bate, to close up the roof by weaving thatch on the ridgepole, 

Samoa: fatu, to commence plaiting. Tonga: fatu, to tie rafters, 
to commence plaiting. Futuna : fatu, fetu, to plait. Uvea : 
fetufetu, id. Nine : fatufatu, to fold ; fatunga, a rafter. Tahiti : 
fatu, to plait, to braid. Paumotu: pifalufatu, to fold. 
Rapanui: haatu, to -plait; hahatu, a plait. Ha,wan:haku,to 
braid a wreath; hakuhaku, to fold up. Maori: whatu, to 
weave. Mangareva : atu, to fold up. 
Epi : bofungo, to close up the roof by weaving thatch on the ridgepole. 
Hebrew : 'abat, to interweave ; 'abot, wreathen work. 

So far as it is given us to follow out the tangles of some of these definitions 
it appears that Dr. Macdonald has sought to draft a statement which should 
allow him to incorporate fatu the ridgepole with this batu. 

The Polynesian has a word, stem fatu, which signifies to plait or braid 
or weave or in some such way with deft fingers to reduce a tangle of shreds 
to order. In Niue, Mangareva and the Paumotu the sense is restricted to 
one of the incident operations in this broader meaning. In Hawaii we find 
the two senses side by side, thus linking the two groups of meaning. With 
this Efatd batu is in accord so far as relates to the matter of weaving which 
our author has distinguished by italics. This stem in Polynesia is nowhere 
particularly applied to thatching, this roof covering being put on by imbri- 
cation and not by interlacing. 

But Tonga fatu to tie rafters, Niue fatunga a rafter, are distinctly roof 
words. That, while they are identical in form with the weaving fatu, they 
are not homogenetic therewith is apparent in the existence of Efate fatu 
a ridgepole. In Samoa the roof fatu is found in fatu'ulu the thatch next 



DATA AND NOTES. 229 

the ridgepole, and in fatulau old thatch, and in fatunga the timbers to which 
the purlins are fastened. The ridgepole fatu is continued in the same sense 
to Tangoan Santo papatu, Malo uobatu, Malekula Uripiv uobut, and Bierian 
botqu. 

The Epi word Dr. Macdonald notes as identical in sense with bdtu, it 
seems in no other wise related. 

149. 
iki, kiki, riki, small. 

The following words all mean small : 

Maori: riki. Samoa: li'i. Tonga: iki, liliki, likiliki. Uvea: 
liliki. Nuguria: likiliki. Futuna: ikiiki, liki. Niue: 
ikiiki. Tahiti : m. Hawaii : Hi. Rotuma : lilii. Marquesas : 
iki. Mangareva: rikiriki. Paumotu: rikiriki. Mangaia: 
rikiriki. Sikayana: likiliki. Samoa, Tahiti, Rarotonga, 
Manahiki, Rapanui, Maori: iti. 

Duke of York: lik. Baki: teliki. Mae wo: riki. Nifilole: laki. 
Motu : malaki. Kabadi : mara'i. Guadalcanar, Pokau : kiki. 
Tubetube: kikiu. Nada, Kiriwana: kikita. Murua: kakiti. 
Oiun: kafakiki. Galavi: berokikina. Bougainville: kekereke. 
Aneityum: tintin. New Georgia: kikina. Pak, Leon: ^tfe^ife. 
Vuras: netui, menet. Merlav: wirig. Mota: rig. Sasar: 
wogrig. Alo Teqel : wowrig. Gog : weskit, wesekit. Nor- 
barbar: sosogut, sosogot. Retan: seget, sogot. Lo: ririg. 
Omba : mbiti. Ararg : tirigi. Sesake : kiki, ngiki. Fagani : 
kikirii. Wango: kekerei. Nggela: kikia. New Britain: 
ik. Baravon : ik, ikilik. Buka : kekereke, kikerei. Lambell : 
liklik. Hula, Galoma: kirikiri. Keapara: kiri. Suau: 
gagiri. Sariba: gagirini. 

Ethiopic : dawik, to be small. 

In the three Efate words for small the common element is ki. The 
simplest form is the reduplicated kiki. With a vowel prefix we find iki, 
and when that in turn is modulated by a liquid coefficient we find riki. 

Two of these forms appear in Polynesian, kiki not having survived that 
far: 

iki: Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Moiki, Tongarewa. 

liki: Maori, vSamoa, Tonga, Uvea,Tahiti, Hawaii, Rotuma, Mangareva, 
Paumotu, Mangaia, Sikayana. 

In Melanesia we find all three forms, distributed as follows : 

kiki: Guadalcanar, New Georgia, Sesake, Nggela, New Guinea. 

iki: New Britain, Baravon. 

liki: Maewo, Baki, Nifilole, Motu, Duke of York, lyambell, Arag, Mota, 

Merlav, Lo, Sasar, Alo Teqel. 
kiki and liki: Bougainville, Buka, Fagani, Wango. 
iki and liki: Baravon. 

Not immediately referable to the three forms in Efate our Melanesian 
studies afford us the following forms : 



230 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS, 

kit. This raay be the basic ki with a persisting radical final consonant^ 
or the t maybe an irregular accretion ; it is impossible in the paucity of data 
to come to a conclusion. If Pak, Leon tiktik be kit under metathesis this 
is the simplest form. In Norbarbar and Retan, with floating vowel, we 
have this stem with a prefix se, so, common to both. In Gog I see such 
resemblance to Retan that I diagram its composition as we-s-kit. 

From this stem, by a common frontal abrasion, we may perhaps derive 
the common word of Polynesia for small; Samoa, Tahiti, Marquesas,. 
Rapanui, Mangareva iti; Tonga jii (metathetic), Moiki itiiti by and by, 
and Hawaii iki (a kappation of radical t and not to be confounded with 
the stem iki). This would restore to Polynesia the possession of the 
third Efate stem, and it now seems to be proved by Rarotonga ngiti. 

Omba mhiti we lack data to coordinate. The first impression that this 
is iti with a prefixed modulant will hardly stand against the fact that Hi 
is an eastern form nowhere found in the west, and the other fact that we 
know of no well attested instance in which a stem which has had its head 
rubbed off acquires a new one by random selection. 

We now are left with Vuras and Aneityum, which have the common 
element net or tin according as we consider the metathesis to have been 
applied to one or to the other. If we regard net as primal and as equivalent 
to nit we shall find any attempt to associate it with iti by frontal accretion 
blocked by the same bar as at Omba, and this somewhat considerable 
array of data affords no example of a k-n mutation by which we might 
account for it. 

Uvea sii, with Aniwa auhi, may open for us a small group of Melanesian 
relationships in Aneityum sisi, Efat6 sks, sos; Epi takisi, Lakon sik, Volow 
siwi, Motlav su, and thus connect with the se, so, element of the compound 
forms of Norbarbar, Retan and Gog. It should be observed, however,, 
that Uvea sii devolves normally through Tonga jii from iti. 

Dr. Codrington (Melanesian Languages, 8i) comments "as is the case 
with most adjectives there is but scanty agreement in the words meaning 
little." I think that in working over his material quite another conclusion 
has been reached and that the Polynesian content is distinctly marked 
from end to end of Melanesia. 

Indonesian affiliations are rare. We find Wahai kiiti, Bouton kidikidi, 
Salayer kedi, and beyond these three we may scarcely venture, perhaps 
not even so far. 

In none of the foregoing is there aught which points to the Semitic 
identification. 

150. 

kiat, the sticks which cross from the canoe to the outrigger. 

Samoa: 'iato, the outrigger struts. Tonga, Nuguria: kiato, id. 
Futuna: kiato, id. Fotuna: akiato, id. Maori: kiato, the 
thwart of a canoe. Tahiti : iato, the transverse beams which 
connect the outrigger to the canoe. Hawaii : iako, the arched 
sticks which connect a canoe with its outrigger. Mangareva : 
kiato, a large raft. Mangaia : kiato, the outrigger. Paumotu : 
kiato, to pierce and cross for joining. 



DATA AND NOTES. 231 

Tanna : nikiatu, the outrigger bars. 

Arabic : h'ata, h'iato, to sew, to join together. 

151- 
kubenga, a fish net. 

Samoa : 'upenga, a net, not restricted to fishing. Tonga, Futuna, 
Nine, Uvea, Nukuoro, Maori, Rapanui, Rarotonga: kupenga, 
id. Nuguria: kupena, id. Aniwa: kowpenga, id. Marquesas: 
upea, upeka, upena, id. Hawaii: upena, id. Tahiti: upea, id. 
Mangareva, Ya-uvaotn: kupenga, a thread, a filament. Fotuna: 
kaupenaua, the neck. 

Sesake: kupenga, a net. Mota: gape, id. Merlav: ganibe, id. 
Gog: gamb, id. Lambell, King: mbene, id. Lamassa: mb'dne, 
id. Laur: mb'dn, id. Motlav: kmbweng, id. Volow: 
nggmbweng, id. Pala: uben, id. 

Arabic: kiffat, a net, from kaffa, to wrap around. 

In form the Polynesian word has the appearance of a verbal noun from 
some verb stem kupe which we do not identify, for Tregear's suggestion of 
Viti kumbe to catch hold of, to cleave or cling to, does not commend itself 
in signification. Against this idea militates the fact that the word has 
been preserved in Efate and Sesake, termination and all. The sense is 
always and everywhere a net or meshed fabric, except in Mangareva where 
it has become limited to that of which nets are made. The Fotuna form is 
clearly a composite of kupenga and ua the neck, but its precise explanation 
is not clear. 

In Melanesia we find two groups of identifications after passing Sesake 
as an unchanged loan word. 

In the first group we have the languages which have assimilated a 
putative stem kupe. These are Mota, Merlav, Gog. 

In the second group are the languages which, while abrading the first 
syllable, have used as their stem penga and have preserved more or less of 
the seeming noun-formative termination. In the order of their strength 
these are Motlav, Volow and the New Ireland group. The Pelion on Ossa 
of the Motlav and Volow forms, it must be remembered, are each a single 
sound ; therefore these do not, as might seem, reproduce the full kupenga; 
it is just the Melanesian clumsiness in compassing a Polynesian p with lips 
which play havoc with the fine precision of labials. 

In view of the fact that the palatal nasal is most probably radical we may 
scarcely accept the Semitic identification. 

152. 
lafi, to take up, to carry. 

Samoa : lavea, to be removed, of a disease. Tonga : lavea, to bite, 
to take the hook, as a fish. Futuna: lave, to comprehend, 
to seize. Niue: laveaki, to convey. Rarotonga: rave, to 
take, to receive. Tahiti: rave, to take. Mangareva: rave, 
to take, to take hold; raveika, fisherman. Maori: raive, to 
take up, to snatch. Hawaii : lawe, to take and carry in the 
hand. Marquesas : ave, an expression used when the fishing 
line is caught in the stones. 



232 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Mota, Omba: rave, to catch (offish). Lo: rav, id. New Britain: 
rapa, to take by force. Nggela, Belaga : lavi, to take. Maewo : 
lailai, id. Arag: lai, id. 

Arabic: rafa'a, to take up, to carry. 

Samoan lave has a hne of significations none of which is found outside 
its immediate vicinage in Nuclear Polynesia. The nearest approach to the 
Efat6 signification is in lavea, and that is not to be supported against the 
first objection that may suggest itself. 

The sense of taking extends from Efate to Fotuna and thence eastward 
to Rarotonga, Tahiti, Mangareva, Maori. The carrying sense is found in 
Nine. The two come together no nearer than Hawaii. 

The specialized use in relation to fishing is absent from Ef at^ ; but its 
presence in Tonga, Mangareva and the Marquesas of Polynesia, and in Mota, 
Omba and Lo of Melanesia is amply suggestive of a common source. The 
other Melanesian identifications call for no comment, except that in Arag 
and Maewo ; if this identification be acceptable, we have no other example 
in all this material of the vanishing of a v. These two, therefore, remain a 
little more than doubtful. 

153- 
leo, le, lo, lu, voice, speech, word. 

Samoa: /eo, voice, sound, noise. Tonga: /e'o, voice. Futuna: 
leo, id. Uvea, Nuguria, Nine: /eo, voice, sound. Hawaii: 
leo, voice, sound, speech, language. Maori, Tahiti, Mangareva : 
reo, id. Rarotonga: reo, voice. Paumotu : refeo, voice, speech ; 
reo, the air of a song. Rapanui : reo, voice, language, air of a 
song, a tale; hakareoreo, a story, to tell. Aniwa: noreo, voice. 
Marquesas: eo, eeo, id. Uvea: lea, to say, to speak to, to 
accost, to address. Tonga: /ea, speech, language. Nine: lea, 
to speak. Rotuma: /io, voice. 

Sesake, Arag, Mota, Omba, Maewo: leo, the voice. Mota: lea, 
speech. Maewo: leo, law. Santo: liona, the voice. 

Arabic: la"a', to speak; la"w' , sound, voice; lo"at, word, language, 
dialect. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is leo, an open form and thereby readily distin- 
guishable from leo (311) to watch, which stems in leos. 

The general sense is the sound of the voice in speech or in song, and to 
this signification the word is confined in Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Uvea, 
Nine, Aniwa, Rarotonga, Paumotu and the Marquesas, that is to say all 
of Nuclear Polynesia with three tongues of the eastward migration ; and the 
same is true of the occurrence of the word in the New Hebrides except 
Efate. If Paumotu reko be really referable to this stem the interpolation 
of the k is anomalous. To this idea of the sound of the voice is added a 
connotation of the product of the voice, and we find the signification of 
speech, language, in Hawaii, Maori, Tahiti, Mangareva, in the Paumotu 
subject to the doubt already noted as to reko, and in Efate. In the latter 
we pass still farther into particulars with leo meaning a word. In Maewo 
the secondary meaning leo law receives no confirmation elsewhere. On 
Tonga le'o see note 145. 



DATA AND NOTES. 233 

In four languages, one of Melanesia and three of Polynesia, we find a 
different yet appreciably similar word for the expression of this latter sense 
in differentiation from the former. These are : 

Uvea: leo, voice, soxmd; lea, to say, to speak to. 
Nine: leo, voice; lea, speech. 
Tonga: le'o, voice; lea, speech, language. 
Mota: leo, voice; lea, speech. 

We are, therefore, abundantly warranted in predicating two parallel 
stems of which lea, by sense similarity and by reason of carrying its form 
and sense distinction nowhere else than in an unaccented final vowel, 
always a weak spot, has become assimilated to leo, this being particularly 
true in the regions covered by the Tongafiti swarm. Efate we find in 
possession of leo voice; it has not now lea speech; we are not justified in 
the statement that it never had the latter, for the form le might survive 
just as well from lea as from leo. 

154- 

lingi-si, malingi, malingsi, to pour out, to spill. 

Samoa, Tonga: lingi, to pour. Nine: lingi, to pour in or out. 
Uvea : lilingi, to sprinkle. Futuna, Nugiiria : lilingi, to pour 
out. Maiori: ringi,\6.. Rarotonga : rmn^i, to pour. Paumotu: 
riringi, to pour from one vessel into another. Tahiti : ninii, 
to pour out. Hawaii : nini, to spill, to pour out. Rapanui : 
nininini, to pour, to shed ; hakanininini, to water. Marquesas : 
iki, to pour out ; iniu, teat. 

Samoa, Tonga: malingi, spilled. Rarotonga: maringi, to spill. 
Paumotu: maringi, to suppurate. Mangareva: meringi, to 
trickle, to flow. Hawaii: manini, to spill or spatter out. 
Tahiti : manii, to overflow, to be spilling. 

Viti: livi, to pour gently or in a small stream. 

New Britain: ligire, to pour out. Motlav, Volow, Merlav, Gog: 
ling, id. Mosin: lenglengir, fluid. Mota: ligligira, ligiu, id. 
Aneityum : aijangjing, to pour out. 

Arabic : raka, to pour out. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is lingis. 

Efate has the simple stem and at least the form of the conditional deriv- 
ative in ma. These two there will be no difficulty in tracing through the 
Polynesian. 

I have given room to Viti livi because of sense identity. Superficially 
it is in form a three-quarters identification. In all my close study of the 
Polynesian content of Viti this is the only case in which the leaping muta- 
tion ng-v at all suggests itself, and there is not a single confirmatory instance 
in this study of the broader field of Melanesia. 

In the unlocalized New Britain instance collected by Tregear we are 
uncertain whether this g is really g or represents ng, a common device in the 
writing of South Sea languages. However this may be, in Mota there can 
be no doubt that gis g and represents a not infrequent ng-g mutation. In 
the other New Hebridean languages where the word occurs it has undergone 



234 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

no change more serious than terminal vowel abrasion, except for a slight 
vowel change in Mosin. Aneityum has aijangjing to pour and ajaingjanse 
to pour in ; this speech, so remote from either of the Proto-Samoan migra- 
tion streams that it falls almost into the lowest class of quality of its Poly- 
nesian content, has been too little studied to warrant our acceptance of 
this identification. But we can sense a Polynesian ghost in its j-ng-s, all 
the more since the l-j mutation plainly appears in lima (312) five Aneityum 
ni-jman. 

155- 

liu, liliu, lilia, ler, bilui, bilu, to turn back, return, go or come back. 

Samoa: liu, liliu, to turn, to go backward and forward. Tonga: 
liu, liliu, to return. Futuna : liliu, to return, to go or come 
back. Nine: liu, liliu, to turn, change, return. Uvea: liliu, 
to turn, to return. Maori : ririu, to pass by. Tahiti : riuriu,. 
to go around in a circle. Mangareva : akariu, to come and go. 

Viti : Ha, to transform, to metamorphose. 

Nggela : liliu, to change, to turn away. 

The identification of liu is complete through all these notes. With the 
dialectic occurrence of Efate lilia there need be no hesitation about admit- 
ting Viti Ha. 

156. 
manuka, a wound. 

Samoa: manu'a, a wound. Tonga: manuka, manukaia, to kill, 
murder, applied to chiefs. Fotuna : manuka, a sore, an ulcer, 
Nuguria: manua, to wound. 

Mota Maligo: maniga, wound. Mota Veverau: manuga, id. 

Bierian: manika, a sore, an ulcer. Baki: menuko, id. Laur: 
manug, a sore, an ulcer, an abscess. Baravon, Pala : manua, 
wound. Malekula : menu, a sore, an ulcer. 

Arabic : naka', to wound. Hebrew : nakah, id. Ethiopic : nakaya, id. 

It is interesting to note that while on the one hand this word is confined 
to Nuclear Polynesia it occurs on the other not only in the New Hebrides 
but even so far back along the Samoa track as the east Indonesian gate. 
Tonga makes far less use of the courtesy speech, the Polynesian Basakrama, 
than does Samoa. In Samoa manu'a is an open word, the wound of a chief 
is m^oe. It would appear that Tonga manuka was an importation from 
Samoa and was set aside for courtesy use as being a foreign novelty. Any 
note is valuable which tends toward the elucidation of the differentiation 
of Proto-Samoan and Tongafiti in Tonga. 

157- 

nakbe, a hollowed log used as a drum. 

Samoa, Tonga, Uvea, Niue : nafa, a drum. 

Malekula Uripiv: nambwi, a drum. 

Hebrew: nekeb, a hollowed thing used as a musical instrument. 



DATA AND NOTES. 235 

158. 
ruma, the breast, bosom. 

Maori : uma, the breast, bosom. Samoa : uma, awide chest. Tonga, 
Futuna, Uvea, Niue: uma, the shoulder. Nuguria: uma, 
breast of a man. Marquesas: uma, the breast. Hawaii: 
umauma, id. Tahiti: ouma, id. Rapanui: huma, breast, 
chest. 

Sesake : ruma, the breast. Dobu : rumaruma, id. Buka : nunume, 
id. Motu: geme, id. Galoma: komakoma, id. 

Arabic: ha'zum', the breast, the bosom. 

Frontal abrasion is so well established that we need have no hesitation 
in accepting the identification of Melanesian nana and Polynesian uma. 
The r-n mutation which will admit Buka nunume is the most frequent l-r 
change in Polynesia, and in the Solomon Islands finds support in lima (313) 
hand Saa ninime. Motu geme is much more remote and uncertain, and does 
not well accord with the high quality of the identifications in that Torres 
Straits migration station ; the r-g mutation finds a measure of support in 
the I'k mutation lima (313) hand Vaturanga kima Nggao kame, where, 
however, Motu has the abraded ami. Galoma with its k form adds con- 
firmation. 

159- 
ruru, to tremble, an earthquake. 

Samoa: lulU, lue, to shake. Tonga: luelue, to roll; lulu, to shake. 
Futuna: lulu, to tremble, to shake, to agitate. Niue: luelue, 
to shake; lulu, to shake, to be shaken. Nuguria: ruhe, motion 
of the hands in dancing; luhe henua, an earthquake. Uvea, 
Hawaii : lu, lulu, lululu, to shake, to tremble, to flap. Fotuna : 
no-ruruia, to shake. Maori: ru, ruru, to shake, an earth- 
quake. Tahiti, Rarotonga, Rapanui, Paumotu : ruru, to shake, 
to tremble. Mangareva: ru, to tremble; ruru, to shake. 

Marquesas : uu, to shake the head in negation ; uuuu, to shake 
up. Uvea: ^ei, to shake; ueue, to move. Rapanui: ueue, 
to shake. 

Nguna : ruru, a trembling. Mota : rir, to quake, an earthquake. 

Syriac : r'el, to tremble. 

Here we seem to have a common stem in two states. 

The simpler is /«. This is found in its bare state in Uvea, Hawaii, Maori 
and Mangareva. With a persistent reduplication, lulu, it is found in all 
the above and in Samoa, Futuna, Fotuna, Tonga, Niue, Tahiti, Rarotonga, 
Pamnotu, Rapanui and the Marquesas, Efate, Nguna and Mota. In Hawaii 
it appears in triplication, and in the Marquesas even in quadruplication. 

The modified stem is lue. This is nowhere found to the exclusion of 
lulu, but with it is found in Samoa, Tonga, Niue and Uvea ; that is, it is 
a Nuclear Polynesian type. 

While there can be no difficulty in form or sense involved in the Mota 
identification we notice the confirmatory agreement of Mota and Maori in 
the particularized seismic meaning. 



236 th:^ POI.YNESIAN wandi^rings. 

i6o. 

taru-si, taro-si, tarotaro, to pray. 

Samoa: tatalo, to pray; talosanga, a prayer. Futuna: tatalo, to 
imprecate, to desire. Tahiti: tarotaro, to pray. Rapanui: 
tarotaro, a malediction, to curse. Hawaii: kalokalo, to pray 
to the gods, to supplicate favors. Nukuoro: tarotaronga, a 
prayer. 

Mota, Arag: tataro, a prayer. 

Aravic: sala', to pray. Kthiopic: salaya, id. Chaldee: sela, id. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is talcs. 

The word has passed along its course with little variety in form or sig- 
nification. Tregear, with such recognition of doubt as the cf. note may 
carry, associates with this stem the Maori tarotaro to cut the hair. His 
explanation "that the cutting of hair among Polynesians was generally 
accompanied by a solemn and religious ceremony," while unimpeachable 
as a statement of manners and customs, seems, for the purposes of philolog- 
ical comparison, an impossible exaltation of the incident over the essential. 

i6i. 

taumafa, taumofa, to invoke or pray while sacrificing or giving an offering. 

Samoa; taumafa, to eat, to drink (of a chief or a chief's pigeon). 
Tonga : taumafa, to eat, applied to the Tuitonga but now used 
to high chiefs. Futuna : taumafa, a thank-offering to the gods 
or to a chief. Nine: taumafa, to eat, used to chiefs only. 
Uvea: taumafa, a religious feast, to eat. Fotuna: taumafa, 
an offering to the gods. Nukuoro : taumaha, taamaha, a feast, 
a sacrificial feast ; hakataumaha, to forbid. Maori : taumaha, a 
thank-offering to the gods ; ivhakataumaha, to offer in sacrifice. 
Tahiti: taumaha, an offering of food to the gods. Hawaii: 
kaumaha, a sacrifice, to offer in sacrifice, to kill a victim for 
sacrifice. Rarotonga: to^woa, to curse. Mangareva : towwafeo, 
a prayer offered up before a feast or a meal, to offer first fruits 
to a god. 

Malekula Pangkumu: tomav, to offer in sacrifice. 

Hebrew: habhabim, offerings. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is taumafat. 

The identifications show remarkable accord in form and sense. It is 
only in Samoa, Tonga, Niue and Futuna, strictly Nuclear Polynesia, that 
the word is applied at all to mortal men. It might be taken as a piece of 
gross flattery to the chiefs to assign to their eating the word which belongs 
to the great gods. In my understanding of the spiritual ideas of this central 
area of Polynesia, which holds the most primal concepts of the race, it seems 
more reasonable to regard the word as originally belonging to the great 
chiefs (Polynesian Basakrama) and thence extended to the divine essences 
when the Polynesians had learned to make gods in their own image. 

Dr. Macdonald finds no difficulty in accounting for the word as a com- 
posite of materials now in Efat^, tau to pray or invoke, mafa (mofa) giving 
or offering. The latter element he thus explains : ' 'when the blood of men 



DATA AND NOTES. 237 

or animals has been shed and forms a pool on the ground, one feeling the 
smell of it, or of any similar thing, says i nabwo mo fa, it smells mo fa," and 
identifies it with Arabic ma'habat a small pool, wahaba to give, to make an 
offering. Yet in the foregoing there nowhere appears for mofa the sense of 
giving or offering which without hesitation he assigns when dealing with 
it in the taumafa composition. The only sense which may be derived from 
the narrative, not definition, of mofa is to say that when the smell of blood 
is felt, if indeed that be possible in sense perception, and one says it smells 
mofa the word is meant to describe the apperception of shed blood by the 
nose. Not in the least inclined to accept the circuitous Arabic identifi- 
cation I see in mofa no suggestion of the radical t. 

Working on different materials Tregear has isolated tau to pray in Tahiti 
and the mafa of mamafa heavy. The latter at least is Proto-Samoan mafat. 
But tau nowhere else in Polynesian means to pray. Bishop Jaussen gives 
tau in the prayer sense but altogether omits tarotaro (i6o), which Tregear 
must have obtained from English missionary sources. Assuming the sub- 
stantial accuracy of the bishop's dictionary it is possible that Tahiti tau 
by the not infrequent loss of Z (e. g., valu eight Tahiti vau) may be associable 
with talo to pray. The association with mafat is excellent in the preserva- 
tion of the radical t, but the correlation of sense leaves much to be desired. 

162. 
tau-ri, to bind, to be bound firmly to, to marry (a woman), to tie firmly to 
(as a boat to a ship to be towed) ; taura ki, to be fixed or bound 
firmly to one, bringing out one as from bondage or from her 
relations, to redeem, to marry; bitauri, to be bound, tied, 
attached firmly to each other, to be married. 
Samoa : tau, taulia, to be anchored, to be fixed (as colors in cloth) ; 
taula, an anchor; taulanga, anchorage; taula'i, to anchor with 
or to; tauvale, to marry beneath one. Tonga: taulanga, 
anchorage ; taufau, to tie. Futuna : taula, an anchor, a cable ; 
taulanga, anchorage. Nine : taula, an anchor. Uvea : taula, 
an anchor; taulanga, anchorage. Nukuoro: taura, a rope. 
Maori: tow, to lie at anchor or moorings; towra, arope; tauranga, 
anchorage; tatau, to tie; taunga, a support, bond, tie, a bond 
of connection between families; taumau, betrothed. Tahiti: 
tau, an anchor; taura, a rope; tauri, to be intermixed as a 
family in a house ; tautea, to rescue, to deliver. Rarotonga : 
taura, a rope. Marquesas : tau, a rope ; katau, atau, an anchor. 
Mangareva: tauri, to tie together; tour a, a cord. Hawaii: 
kau, to tie on ; kaula, a rope ; kaupili, to unite, as man and wife. 
Sesake: matau, an anchor. Mota: taur, to hold. 
Arabic : sabara, sabr', to bind, to be boimd to. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is taul. 

The Polynesian tau is protean in its shifts of meaning. I have here segre- 
gated only such as are associable with Efate tauri. Other senses will be 
found in 236 and 267. 

In the Melanesian identifications Mota is satisfactory. We lack the data 
to establish the value of ma in Sesake matau which seems to be a composite 
of this tau. 



238 THE POIrYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

163. 

telatela, tnatulu, mutultui, matoltol, large, swollen. 

Samoa: tele, latele, vatele, large. Mangareva: tere, to be fat, to 

swell out. Maori: tetere, large, swollen. Hawaii: kelekele, 

fat, plump, large. 
Samoa: matolutolu,matoidou,th.ick.{oi -pork only). Tonga, Futuna, 

Nukuoro: matolutolu, t\ac]s.. Niue: matolu, id. Uvea: matolu, 

thickness. Hawaii: makolu, wide, thick. Maori: matotoru, 

thick. Fotuna, Tahiti: matoru, id. Mangareva: matoru, 

fat, thick. Marquesas: motou, thickness. 
Mota: matoltol, thick. Epi: toru, large. Norbarbar: motoltol, 

thick. Ngtma: ma^w/w, id. Baki: merero/M, id. Malekula: 

metetir, id. 
Hebrew: 'adir, large, great. 

Dr. Macdonald includes in his identifications Samoa telatela, which, if 
valid, would avail to connect the two groups which follow. Unfortunately 
this identification is form resemblance only, for telatela in Samoan is the 
clitoris and in no way associable with the signification of these stems. Yet 
without this there is abundant reason to consider matolu a conditional 
derivative of tele. If this be the fact, the conditional, which remains practi- 
cally uniform, must be held to preserve a primitive which since then, in its 
unsupported state, has developed other vowels. 

In the Melanesian identifications all is plain except Baki and Malekula. 
They seem to have me as the conditional element. The primitive, then, 
will appear in Baki as rerolu and in Malekula as tetir, evidently reduplica- 
tions. In view of the plural preduplication of Samoa tele tetele Malekula 
tetir seems explicable in form and interesting as exhibiting the much desired 
transition form between tele and matolu. Baki rerolu, apart from the irregu- 
larity of vowel change in duplication, would argue a t-r mutation. This is 
unusual but not impossible. These data afford four examples, which are 
here presented for consideration : futi (329) banana Moanus mbur; ate (276) 
liver Malekula ere Efate are; fatu (294) a stone Malekula var; talinga (350) 
ear Malekula riring. The last I withdraw for reasons which will be offered 
sub voce. The Baki form may pass. 

164. 

tere, teretere, (a) the comb of a cock; (6) the eaves of a house. 

(a) Samoa: tala, a thorn, the barb of a spear, the spur of a cock; 
talatala, prickly, thorny, rough. Tonga: tala, a thorn, the 
pricking fin on the back of a fish ; talatala, tala, thorny, prickly. 
Futuna : tala, thorn, horn of an animal, fin of a fish ; talatala, 
prickly, thorny . Niue : talatala, prickly. Uvea : tala, thorn, 
horn; talatala, prickly. Nugfuria, Nukuoro: torn, a thorn. 

Maori : tara, a point, as a spear point, spines in the dorsal fin of 
a fish, membrum virile, clitoris ; taratara, a spine, spike, prickly, 
rough. Tahiti: tara, a horn, thorn, cock's spur; taratara, 
prickly, thorny. Rapanui : tara, a horn, spine, thorn. Hawaii. 
kakala, rough with sharp points ; kalakala, thorny. Mangareva : 



DATA AND NOTES. 239 

tara, a horn, a spine, crest of a bird ; taratara, prickly, thorny, 
spiny. Moriori: hokotara, to sharpen. Marquesas: taa, a 
thorn, spike, point. 
(6) Samoa: tala, the round ends of a house. Maori: tara, the side 
wall of a house. Tahiti: tara, the corner or end of a house; 
fautarafare, the bend of the round part of a house. Hawaii: 
kala, the ends of a house in distinction from the sides. 

Viti : teretere, combs of some birds, crest of serpents. 

Duke of York : talaglagano, thorny. 

Arabic : torra, crest, comb of a bird ; torrat, extremity, end of anything. 

There is no reason to suspect any closer association between these two 
groups than is involved in identity of spelling, which, despite change of 
vowel in Polynesian, extends to their last occurrence. The Viti carries 
the Efate vowel scheme within the borders of Nuclear Polynesia and serves 
as the connective for the thorn sense. 

In the architectural tala, Samoa, Tahiti and Hawaii agree upon the ends 
of the house, Samoa and Tahiti upon their being curvilinear ; with a differ- 
ent plan of structure the Maori assign it to the side wall. Of the Efatdword 
the most that can be said is that it is architectural even if widely different 
from any Polynesian use. 

The only Melanesian resemblance beyond Efate, Duke of York talaglag- 
ano, in the east gate of Indonesia, suggests a stem talak, of which no trace 
survives elsewhere and the gap in Melanesia precludes confirmation. 

165. 
tere, the mast of a ship, calf (column) of the leg. 

Samoa : tila, the sprit of a sail. Futuna : tila, the long boom or 

sprit to which a sail is bent. Tonga: jila, yard of a canoe. 

Fotuna: jira, mast. Maori: tira, mast of a canoe. Tahiti, 

Rarotpnga, Mangareva: tira, a mast. Uvea: sila, yard. 

Makura: na-tire, mast. Tanna: tila, id. Bierian: n'dalin, id. 

Arabic: sariyat, sari, the mast of a ship, a column. 

In devising his second definition Dr. Macdonald has squinted so strabis- 
mically at his Arabian entertainment that a single degree added to his angle 
of vision would have turned him into a One-Eyed Calender. 

In the Polynesian group the t-s mutation in Uvea sila is sufficiently 
common. 

The Melanesian identifications are simple, except Bierian n'dalin. Omit- 
ting the final n, for which we have no explanation other than that it may 
be noun-formative, we may reduce the word to tali, and this, it is at once 
apparent, is metathetic for tila. 

The variety of sense as between boom, sprit, yard, and mast is more 
apparent than real. It is due to an attempt to establish as a fixed concrete 
a term which is undoubtedly abstract and descriptive. In the navigation 
where the triangular sail has an enormous sprit or boom and a short mast 
tila goes with the longer spar ; where the mast is high and the sprit, boom, 
yard or gaff is subordinate, tila still goes with the longer spar. If we had 
the data whereby to analyze tila down to its elements we should probably 
find that it meant no more than long spar. 



240 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

1 66. 
tifai, thunder, ti, article, and fai. 

The following words all mean thunder and those in which the fai element 
is indisputable are grouped : 

Samoa, Fakaafo : faititili. Tonga : faijijili. Manahiki : faititiri. 
Tahiti: patiri. Tongarewa: hatitiri. Maori: whatitiri, 

whaitiri. Bukabuka: watitiri. Paumotu: fatitiri. Nukuoro: 
haturi. Rapanui, Mangareva: atutiri. Hawaii: hekili. 

Nuguria: hetuturi. Marquesas: hatiitii, fatutii, hatutii. 
Aniwa, Fila: te-fachiri. Fotuna: vajiri. Vat^: vatshiri. 

(Malay: titir, to make a noise, a noise which gives alarm.) 

Arabic : bahh', hoarse, used of thunder. 

Dr. Macdonald's simple attempt at etymology in respect of his designa- 
tion of ti as article must have reference to the Tongafiti te, the weak demon- 
strative functioning as article at times, for his dictionary does not identify ti 
in Efate in any sense. The common Polynesian words for thunder involve 
the two elements fai and tili. The Efate alone in Melanesia contains ele- 
ments in the thunder word which resemble the Polynesian. As to the fai 
there can be no doubt ; ti may readily be an abraded form of tili. I know 
of no instance in which the Melanesian has inverted the order of the ele- 
ments in borrowing a Polynesian composite, yet in default of more definite 
information this seems not unlikely in this case. 

The former element in Polynesia has the following forms : 

fai: Samoa, Fakaafo, Tonga, Mana- wa: Bukabuka. 

hiki. wha: Maori. 
Whai: Maori. ha: Tongarewa, Nukuoro, Mar- 
fa: Paumotu, Aniwa, Fila, Mar- quesas. 

quesas. he: Hawaii. 

va: Fotuna, Vat^. a: Mangareva. 
pa: Tahiti. 

The latter element falls into groups, which yet may not have diagnostic 
significance, according to the duplication of the stem, as follow : 

tili: Tahiti, Maori, Hawaii, Aniwa, Fila, Fotuna, Vat^ (Nukuoro). 
titili: vSamoa, Fakaafo, Tonga, Manahiki, Tongarewa, Maori, Buka- 
buka, Paumotu (Mangareva, Rapanui). 
tilitili: Marquesas. 

Mangareva atutiri, Marquesas fatutii, hatutii, suggest a fatu former ele- 
ment. Yet the Nukuoro haturi, which can scarcely be hatu-ri, seems to 
argue a remoter tutiri duplication through an ignorance of the stem vowel 
which Nukuoro reveals. The first of the three Marquesas forms is recorded 
by Tregear, but is not found in Bishop Dordillon's modern dictionary. 

If we had none other than the /oi-composites we should say that the 
former element signifies "to make." Not one of the other forms of this 
element offers in any of the languages a sense which might explain the 
composite, but not one of the languages has anything which would contra- 
indicate this sense. Provisionally, therefore, we may assume that faititili 
means "to makit-tili intensively." 



DATA AND NOTES. 241 

Nowhere in Polynesia can I find a meaning of tili which would shed any 
light on this composite, and I am forced to the conclusion that this element 
has passed out of independent existence. The presence of the composite 
in Aniwa, Fotuna, and Fila argues its great age as a compound. I am very 
loth to accept an Indonesian identification except it be supported by a 
satisfactory chain of evidence. To present such a resemblance based upon 
a single instance goes against my practice in the present work. Yet with 
this deprecation I note the Macassar djili the lightning flash. Faitili then 
might mean that which makes the lightning. It may be that we shall find 
a trifle in geographical support of this suggestion. Macassar is the region 
in Celebes which lies in closest proximity to the island of Salayer, a name 
which seems not remotely preserved in the honorific fa'alupenga of Samoa 
in the high phrase for all Tutuila. 

Tulouna a 'oe le motu o Salaia. Saving thy grace, island of Salaia. 

167. 

ulumwa, a pillow for the head. 

Samoa : alunga, alulunga, a soft pillow. Nuguria : aruna, headrest. 
Tonga: o/ttwg'a, pillow. Futuna, Uvea, Nine :tt/M«^a, id. Maori, 
Mangareva: urunga, id. Hawaii: uluna, a pillow, to sleep on 
a pillow, to tie up a bundle for a pillow. Paumotu : rurunga, a 
pillow. Tahiti: urua, turua, id. Rapanui: rangtia, id. 
Dufaure Island (New Guinea) : umm, a pillow. New Britain : ulula- 
lag, id. Mota Maligo : ilinga, head-rest, pillow. Mota Veverau : 
ulunga, id. 
Mahri: here, haroh, hare, eves', the head. 
Dr. Macdonald repeats and again repeats the hint that this is a derivative 
of ulu the head. Tregear notes that the word is probably connected with 
uru the head, turu, and runga. 

This can only apply in those instances which have initial u, Futuna, Uvea, 
Nine, Maori, Mangareva, Hawaii, Tahiti, Mota Veverau. It leaves unsatis- 
fied Samoa, Tonga, Paumotu and Mota Maligo. The Samoan plural is 
proof that the word is a composite of which the latter element is lunga. 
The former element is most commonly m, but a, 0, and possibly i occur. The 
Paumotu rurunga is accordingly a preduplication of the second element and 
the common first element does not appear in it at all. If, then, lunga inde- 
pendently or in composition carries the sense of headrest it will be seen 
that the stem can not be ulu the head. The alternative Tahiti turua is 
anomalous on either theory of the word. The Rapanui form is susceptible 
of explanation by double metathesis. 

Mota Veverau ulunga is of the general type. I incline to regard Mota 
Maligo ilinga as a mere variant of local dialect. The only way by which 
Dufaure unua can be brought into correlation is by establishing the loss 
of n and the l-n mutation. Bach of these changes is abundantly manifested 
in Melanesia and Polynesia; whether they are current in Dufaure Island 
the only other word we have from that speech {ama (340) outrigger Dufaure 
sarima — unsatisfactory) does not allow us to judge. The New Britain 
ululalag can be correlated only as a compound of ulu head and lalag equiv- 
alent to lunga with reduplication, and there is no evidence forthcoming to 
support the latter, while the former is distinctly contraindicated. 



242 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

i68. 

utu, ut i, to fill (by immersing) a water vessel. 

Samoa : utu, to draw water, to fill a bottle, to charge a gun. Tonga : 
utu, to draw water; utufia, to pour out, to run as water from 
a vessel or tears from the eyes. Futuna : iitu, to draw water, 
to fill with a liquid ; tiku, to plunge into the water. Uvea : uttt, 
uutu, to draw water, to pour into. Nine : titu, to draw water. 
Nuguria: utu, to fill. Maori: utu, to dip up water, to fill 
with water. Tahiti: ut^lh^, to dip into the water, to rinse. 
Mangareva: utuhi, to draw water. Hawaii: ukuhi, to pour, 
as water into a cask, to fill a vessel with any fluid. Mangaia : 
uti, to draw water. Fotuna: no-eitu, id. Rapanui: iiutu, 
to fill up ; ootu, to draw water. 

Motu: ^^tu, a flood, to draw water. Tanna: atu, id. Aneityum: 
athun wai, id. 

Arabic: "ata ("a'tu) to immerse. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is utuf. 

Rather more frequently than is the case in general the influence of the 
radical / is found not only in Nuclear Polynesia but persists to distant 
extensions of the Tongafiti swarm. The Mangaia uti is singular in Poly- 
nesia but accords with an alternative Efate form. The irregularity of the 
initial vowel in Fotuna looks toward the Tanna and Aneityum forms, and 
they are its close neighbors. 

Dr. Macdonald in his definition squints as usual quite obliquely at the 
Arabic. It is only by the accident of the container, the common water 
vessel of the South Sea being the coconut pierced at the eyes, that it is 
more convenient to fill by immersing. That the immersion in no sense 
inheres in the word is shown by the Samoan use of utu to charge a gun or 
to cram tobacco into a pipe, and b}^ the general use of the word to signify 
pouring out from the container. 

EFATE-MELANESIAN-POLYNESIAN-MALAY. 

169. 
finanga, food. 

Samoa : sina'aiunga, grayheaded from eating the hermit crab (unga), 
old but foolish. Tonga : hinakaiunga, grayheaded as a punish- 
ment for eating the hermit crab. 
Mota, Marina: sinaga, food. Malo: sinaca, id. Motlav, Omba: 
hinaga, id. Lo: hinega, id. Sesake: vinaga, id. Duke 
of York : winangan, id. 
Malagasy: hinana, food. 

There is a possibility that the Efate contains a misprint, for in Dr. 
Macdonald's alphabet the ng differs from the g by no more than a dot above. 
The mutation g-ng is by no means impossible, but it is strange that Efate 
is the only speech except the distant Duke of York in which this word 
varies from the standard. 

The two words in Nuclear Polynesia have hitherto been a puzzle unsolved. 
The interpretations offered in the dictionaries of Pratt and Baker respec- 



DATA AND NOTES. 243 

tively are just such philology as the islanders invent for the student who 
attempts to go under the surface of their speech. It is of a piece with the 
Samoan etymology of tangata man from ta to strike and ngata snake, with 
Genesis iii, 15, cited as decisive. We now reduce the word to sinaka food 
in a verbal use as shown by verb-formative i, and unga, the particular sense 
of which does not yet appear. 

The Melanesian forms are all in accord, even including Duke of York 
winangan, for in this island we find s-w mutation although no other example 
thereof is included in these data; and the Sesake vinaga is transitional. 

EFATE-POLYNESIAN-MALAY-SEMITIC. 
170. 

afis i, afit i, afin i, afan i, afen i, to put or carry under the arm or arms 
held between the arm and the side, to cover with the wings as 
a bird its young, clasping them between the wing and the side ; 
af ini na, the armpit ; afili na, the armpit, the groin. 

Samoa: aflsi, to carry under the arm, to carry a child astride the 
hip, afisinga, a load carried under the arm. Tonga: efi, to 
carry under the arm. Futuna: efi, to carry under the arm, 
the under side of a fin. Mangareva: ahi, when used after 
a word signifying a load or a bundle it means a load carried 
on the chest or in the arms. Maori : awhi, to embrace ; awhe, 
to measure a tree by embracing it. Tahiti: ee, armpit. 

Malay: kapet, mangapet, to carry under the arm. 

Arabic: "abana, to put under the armpit; ma" bin' , groin, armpit. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is afis. 

This appears only in Samoa and in Efate, where variants are found in 
t, n and /. The efi of Tonga and Futuna marks the transition in respect 
of the former vowel, and Maori awhe the transition form for the latter; 
together they substantiate Tahiti ee, the / normally vanishing in that 
language. 

171. 

bangobango, to be crooked. 

Samoa : pi'opi'o, crooked, wrong. Futuna, Tongarewa, Marquesas, 
Mangareva, Paumotu: piko, bent, crooked, awry, twisted. 
Nukuoro : pikopiko, crooked. Nine : piko, to think erroneously; 
pikopiko, to speak falsely. Uvea : piko, pipiko, crooked, slug- 
gish. Maori: /)ifeo, to bend, to stoop, to be curved. Rapanui: 
hakapiko, pliant, to bend, to make crooked. Tonga: biko, 
crooked. Tahiti: pio, bent, crooked, wrong. Hawaii: pio, 
bent, crooked. 

Malay : bengkok, crooked . Malagasy : vukuka, id . Java : bengkong, id . 
Sam: pekok, id. 

Hebrew: hafak, to turn. Syriac: hpak, id. Arabic: 'apaka, id. 
Hebrew: hapakpak, crooked, twisted. 



244 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

172. 
bwala, to be smooth. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea : molemole, smooth. Nukuoro : 
molemole, soft. Hawaii: molemole, smooth, bald. Tahiti: 
moremore, id. Maori: more, bare, plain, bald. Mangareva: 
akamore, to decapitate, to cut off horns. Paumotu : moremore, 
without hair on the body, polished. 
Malagasy: bory, deprived of, shorn, cropped, polled. 
Arabic : mar a, maur', to fall off or pluck out, as wool or hair. 

173- 
biau, beau, biaufiau, biafiau, a wave; biaufiau, to be raised in waves, 
rough sea. 
Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Fotuna, Niue, Marquesas, Nuguria: peau, 

a wave. Mangareva : peau, peahu, id. 
Viti : mbiau, a wave. 

Tanna: peau, a wave. Aneityum: ne-peau, id. 
Malay: ombak, a wave. 
Ethiopic: ababi, waves. Arabic: 'ubab, id. 

174- 
bule, fule, complete (adverbial) . 

Tonga : fuli, fulibe, all, everyone. Futuna : fuli, all, universal ; fuliai, 

all without exception. Uvea : fuli, all, universal, the whole. 
Malay: bulah, the whole. 
Arabic: bala"a, bulu", to complete, to go through to the end. 

175- 
busi, to blow, to spout as a whale. 

Samoa : pusa, to send up a smoke (applied also to dust, spray, vapor), 
Nukuoro: pusa, steam. Fotuna: noh-pusa, to rise (of dust). 
Tonga: buhi, to spit; bubuhi, to spout as the whale, to blow 
anything from the mouth. Futuna : pupusi, to blow, a blast 
of wind. Niue : puhi, to spurt out. Uvea : pupuhi, to blow. 
Maori: puhi, to blow. Tahiti: pupuhi, to blow the fire, to 
blow out a candle; puhipuhi, to blow with the mouth, with a 
fan, with bellows. Hawaii: puhi, to blow (as wind), to blow 
(the fire, a shell), to puff, to spout. Marquesas : puhi, to blow, 
to breathe. Mangareva : puhi, to blow. Paumotu : puhipuhi, 
to blow. Rarotonga : pupui, id. 
Malay: ambus, avibusi, to blow; ambusan, bellows. Malagasy: 

mifufutra, to blow the bellows. 
Arabic: nafat'a, nafah'a, to blow out, to puff, to eject spittle. 
I do not take cordially to Dr. Macdonald's inclusion of Samoan pu^a in 
his identification. This word is found also in Nukuoro and Fotuna and 
nowhere else in Polynesia. The accord of all other instances upon pusi, 
evidently pus advanced in manufacture by the verb-formative i, renders it 
well-nigh impossible that this rare and rigidly Proto-Samoan pusa can be 
associable therewith. The only difference between the two pusi senses is 
that to spout is blowing made visible; this sense in Poljoiesia appears in 
Tonga, Niue, and Hawaii. 



DATA AND NOTES. 245 

176. 

butu, futu, butafuta, futfut, to spring up or out, as water from a spring or 
smoke from a fire ; butu-raki, buti-raki, to appear, to come in 
sight. 

Maori : puta, to gush out, to spurt, to come in sight, to pass through, 
to pass in or out. Hawaii: puka, to enter in or pass out; 
hoopuka, to appear in sight when at a distance. Marquesas: 
puta, to arrive. Mangareva : puta, to go out from. 

Malay : tarbit, to issue, to come out, to emanate, to appear. 

Arabic: nabata, to spring up or out as water, to appear, to go or 
come forth, to come in sight. 

If it were not that the Maori and Hawaiian comprehend the two senses 
in one word I should scarcely consider buta and buturaki associable. The 
latter, despite our author's division of the word by the hyphen, seems to 
be butur-aki, butir-aki, in which the ki which he describes as transitive par- 
ticle seems better comprehended as aki which is verb-formative all through 
Polynesia. In this case the stem is closed with a liquid. The absence of 
this closing radical and the difference of vowel in buta argue against its 
association with the butur stem. The Polynesian forms preserve the a and 
therefore have a formal identification with buta, but in the sense there is a 
mixture with significations of butur. It will be observed that this is one of 
the infrequent identifications with the Tongafiti swarm having no trace in 
Nuclear Polynesia; therefore it should not be accepted without a clearing 
up of these difficulties far beyond our present power. 

The buturaki, butiraki, sense is found in Nuclear Polynesia in Samoa fotu, 
Tonga fotu, fotui, fotuaki, Futuna fotu, Viti votu, all of identical meaning. 
Yet there is nowhere any trace of the radical final consonant. The Tonga 
fotuaki would appear to negative the possibility that modern fotu stems in 
fotur, but this is more apparent than real, for Tonga seems not to have 
adopted these inflected forms until the final consonants of closed roots had 
vanished. In Samoa, where closed roots are normally preserved in com- 
posite (inflectional) forms, we have no record of any form which might give 
evidence upon this point. Accordingly this is not offered as an identifica- 
tion, but to record a resemblance sufficient to suggest identity. It is to 
note that Samoan fot^i could not undergo any known variation and become 
Maori puta. 

177- 

ngal i, kal i, al i, to stir water around. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna: ngalu, a wave, a breaker. Fotuna, 

Maori, Rarotonga: ngaru, id. Mangareva: ngaru, scum, 

froth. Paumotu : puhingaru, a bubble of water. Hawaii : 
nalu, a wave. Tahiti: aru, id. Marquesas, kau, nail tai, id. 

Malay: alun, a wave. Malagasy: aluna, id. 

Hebrew: galal, to roll; gal, fountain, well, waves. Syriac: galo', 
a wave. 

In addition to the identification with ngalu Dr. Macdonald, led by abraded 
forms of his ngal, adds the Hawaiian ale to well up, which is negligible. 
Both he and Tregear link with ngalu a wave ngalue to shake. In this case 



246 THK POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

the nga is a formative prefix, and the stem lue has already been studied 
under 159. 

The identification ngali-ngalu satisfies in form as Uttle as in sense. In 
the Polynesian the word has a distinct and concrete meaning. The Efate, 
if it be regarded as concrete, means something quite different from ngalu; 
and if it be regarded as a loose and abstract term it has nothing in it to 
suggest a wave of the sea. Furthermore we find in these data almost no 
instance in which we are satisfied with the identification of a Polynesian 
concrete with a Melanesian abstract. 

178. 
ngiringiri, bright, shining, brilliant, polished. 

Samoa: 'i'ila, to shine, to glisten, to glitter. Tonga: kikila, to 
shine, to glare; ngingila, bright, shining. Futuna: kikila, 
bright, shining; ngingila, brilliant, resplendent. Wine.: kikila, 
brightness, to shine. Uvea : ngingila, bright, shining, brilliant, 
fiery, to beam ; pakila, a ray, a beam. 
Malay : gilang, to shine, to glitter, to dazzle, bright, brilliant. 
Arabic: gala', galiyy' , clear, bright, shining, polished. 
The concurrence of ng and k forms in Tonga, Futuna and Uvea, while 
Samoa and Niue have but the k form, seems to point to two channels by 
which the word reached these several parts of Nuclear Polynesia. Of these 
the migration which reached Samoa-Niue seems to present an earlier stage 
of the root, if the Malay identification prove to be as good as it seems. Then 
Kfat^-Uvea-Futuna-Tonga are finger-posts of a later migration overlaid 
upon the earlier. We shall again and again notice evidences of two waves 
in the Proto-Samoan migration stream. The consociation of Samoa and 
Niue is supportable by Niue tradition. 

179. 
kabwe, a small basket. 

Sam.oa: 'apu, a cup or dish made of a leaf. Tonga: kabu, the 
banana leaf so folded as to hold water; habu, the banana leaf 
tied at both ends to hold water. Mangareva : kapu, a cup, a 
leaf dish. Rarotonga: kapu, a cup. Marquesas: kapu, 

a handful; curved, rounded. Tahiti: apu, the shell of a nut 
or gourd. Hawaii : apu, a dish or cup ; aapu, a concave vessel. 
All the Polynesian words are associated with the curving hollow 
of the hand, Maori : kapu, id. 

Malay: kabok, goblet. Malagasy: kapoaka, a cup, a goblet. 

Syriac : kapo', a goblet. Hebrew : kaf, kap, the hollow of the hand ; 
plural a hollow vessel, pan or bowl; kafaf, to bend, to curve. 
Cf . kaf 96. 

180. 

las, lasi, big, large, great, sufficient, to suffice. 

Samoa: lasi, many. Futuna: lasi, many, great. Tonga: lahi, 
large, many, abundant. Niue : lahi, great. Uvea : lahi, many, 
great. Maori, Tahiti : rahi, many, great. Manahiki : rahi, great. 
Rarotonga: rai, large. 

SajDarua: ilahil, great. Awaiya: ildhe, id. 

Arabic : 'arus'a, to be wide, large. 



DATA AND NOTES. 247 

There should be a Hmit to the confidence with which we are to follow 
our author. Our limit is reached at this word "suffice." For it is thus 
that Dr. Macdonald proceeds: "to meet, i. e., to suffice, be sufficient for, as 
nafinanga i lasingita, the ford is sufficient for (meets) us and you, tilasi, id., 
also to meet, come upon, come across (a person) i tilasinami nabua, he met 
us — them on the way." 

So far as las, last, means great the Polynesian identification is perfect. 

The Indonesian suggestions are derived from Turner; they are presented 
as resemblances; there seems no other relation. 

i8i. 

soko, masoko, true, exact, to the point. 

Samoa: sa'o, sdsa'o, correct, right. Futuna: sako, right, correct. 

Tonga: sao, pleasing, agreeing with what is right and just. 

Nine: hako, straight; hakohako, perfect, upright, just. 
Malay: sung"uh, true. 
Arabic: sadaka, sadk', true. Hebrew: sadak, to be straight, lighi, 

just. 

The extinction in Tongan of Proto-Samoan k is so unusual as to cause 
the thought that perhaps Tonga sao is really Samoa sao perfect, without 
fault or blemish, and not properly to be identified with sako. 

182. 

sulu, a torch; sulu e, to scorch with the flame, to illuminate with a torch. 

Samoa: sulu, a torch; to light by a torch; sulusulu, to carry a 
torch; susulu, to shine (used of the heavenly bodies and of 
fire). Futuna: jm5'w/m, the brightness of the moon. Tonga: 
huluaki, huluia, huluhulu, to light, to enlighten; fakahuhulu, 
to shine; tuhulu, a torch or flambeau, to light with a torch. 
Nine: hulu, a torch; huhtilu, to shine (as the moon). Maori: 
huru, the glow of the sun before rising, the glow of fire. 

Baki: yulu, a torch. Motu: hurtiru, id. 

Java : suluh, a torch. 

Arabic: s'a'ala, to light, kindle a fire, torch; s'u'ulu, flame of fire; 
mas"al', torch. 

The Efate gives us the torch sense ; this runs through Samoa, Tonga, Niue, 
Baki, Motu, Java. In Poljmesia we encounter the sense of shining, which 
may be taken to mean that the torch is the shining thing. The abstract 
sense is found with the torch name conjointly in Samoa, Tonga and Niue, 
and exclusive of the torch in Futuna and Maori. The Samoan susulu, which 
expressly points out that fire and the heavenly bodies shine in the same 
word, is the link which joins the two significations, and the Maori would be 
exactly as valid if it but included a sulu torch. The celestial shining in 
Samoa and Tonga is general, in Niue and Futuna is moonshine, in Maori is 
the sun in the dawn glow. Of the Paumotu huru color, height, figure, 
shape, only the first sense can be in the least referable to sulu to shine, and 
then only to dismiss it. 

The Motu identification will pass muster. If the Baki is to stand it 
introduces a new mutation, s-y, one which rests upon this single instance ; 



248 THE POIyYNKSIAN WANDERINGS. 

and our Baki material is so scanty, this being the only case involving s, 

that we can neither prove nor dispute it. 

The Java stduh seems good, for in cases where form and sense are in 

perfect accord we need not exact corroboration from other Indonesian 

sources. 

183. 

tabwa n, tauba na, side, shore. 

Samoa: tapa, the uncolored border of a bast cloth. Tonga: tapa, 
the border or edge of bast cloth or of anything; kapa, the 
corners and edges of anything. Niue: to^a, side. Rapanui: 
tapa, edge, border, fringe, cloth, clothing. Maori: tapa, the 
margin, the edge, the brim of a vessel. Mangareva: tapa, 
bast cloth, the border of cloth. Marquesas : tapa, bast cloth. 
Tahiti: tape, a fragment of cloth; tapemoana, the edge of the 
deep water. Hawaii: kapa, bast cloth, bank, shore, side. 

Malay: tapi, edge, border. 

Arabic: taff', side, shore. 

The sense of side, without particular restriction, is found in Efate, Niue, 
Maori. The specialized sense of the border of the bast cloth, which is 
absent from Efate, is found to the exclusion of the general sense in Samoa 
and Mangareva, and inclusive of the general sense in Tonga. In Mangareva 
the word means not only the border but the cloth, and in the Marquesas 
and Hawaii the border idea has vanished and the word is applied to the 
cloth in general, while in Tahiti it designates any fragment of the cloth. 
The shore sense takes a long leap from Efate to Tahiti and Hawaii. 

184. 

taii-ni, tao-ni, to cook, to bake in the oven ; tao, leaves for cooking which 
are put into the oven along with the food to be cooked. 

Samoa : tao, to bake ; taofono, taona'i, to bake food the day before 
it is used; taji, the leaves used to cover an oven. Tonga: tao, 
to cook food in an oven, to bake. Futuna : tab, to put in an 
oven, to cook. Niue : tao, to bake. Uvea : tao, to cook, to 
bake. Maori, Rapanui : tao, to bake or cook in a native oven, 
properly to steam, to boil with steam. Tahiti: tao, the rocks 
and leaves with which a pig is covered when cooking; baked, 
boiled, cooked. Marquesas, Mangareva, Mangaia, Tongarewa : 
tao, to bake in an oven. 

Malagasy: tatao, the rice, milk, and honey cooked at the annual 
feast. 

Arabic: taha, tahw', to cook. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is taon. 

The word refers to the specific manner of cookery which involves the 
pit oven. The suggestion in the Maori, therefore, does not mean a different 
method ; it is but an attempt more precisely to describe the kitchen method, 
a very tasty cookery, be it said. The suggestion of boiling is found only 
in Tahiti, yet in his dictionary Bishop Jaussen does not record it under 
the word bouillir; boiling was little known to the Polynesians before the 
European introduction of pottery and other fire-resisting utensils. The 



DATA AND NOTES. 249 

sense of the noun tab is found in Tahiti, and in Samoa where it is distin- 
guished from the verb by the form tau, and this corresponds to taiini, which 
nowhere else appears in Polynesia. 

The Malagasy affiliation is suggested by Tregear with the apologetic 
note cf . It does not seem good, for rice and milk with honey scarcely lend 
themselves to this cookery. The failure to recognize Polynesian kitchen 
conditions in regard of rice once mislaid some charity of excellent intention. 
The Apia hurricane of 1889, in addition to the destruction of two fleets, left 
the Samoans on the verge of starvation by the uprooting of their planta- 
tions and the snapping off of the crowns of coconut trees. As soon as their 
plight became known in Australia the warm-hearted Colonials despatched 
a cargo of rice to keep the poor islanders alive. Unfortunately the Samoans 
had neither stoves nor pots, they could not bake rice in a pit oven, and they 
were as badly off as ever until food supplies better adapted to their con- 
ditions reached them. 

185. 

uta na, uta i, to pay for, repay, give in payment for. 

Nine : uta, to pay, to render. Maori : utu, an equivalent, a recom- 
pense, the price paid, to pay for, to compensate. Marquesas: 
utu, wages. Tahiti: utua, compensation, reward, wages. 

Hawaii: uku, to pay, to remunerate, wages. 

Malay: utang, a debt. Tagalog, Visayas: utang, id. 

Arabic: 'ada', to pay for, repay. 

The Nine identification is a satisfactory showing that the word has made 
an entrance into Nuclear Polynesia. The iitu forms are all in the Tongafiti 
migration, and that is so much later as to have allowed the word to change, 
or it may have been a dialectic variant ab initio. These words are in accord 
among themselves and vary from Efate only in form and that upon the weak 
point of the unaccented final vowel. They are, therefore, acceptable. 

The Malayan identifications are imperfectly satisfactory. Polynesia has 
the sense of something that is paid to a person who has the right to 
receive it; Indonesia has the sense of what a person has to pay out. The 
distinction is one that would have found Wilkins Micawber, Esq., at his 
best, to the rest of us a tragedy. Yet in form the Indonesian words agree 
in a terminal consonant, which is also in Efate utana, if I am correct in thus 
reading the word. 

EFATE-VITI-MELANESIAN-POLYNESIAN-SEMITIC. 
186. 
afa, afafa, of a, ofaofa, to swim. 

Samoa, Futuna: opeope, to float. 
Viti: nawa, to float. 
Epi: niava, mia, to swim. 

Arabic: 'ama, to float, to swim (said of a man), to go (of a camel), 
to dispose in sheaves or bundles; 'amat, a bundle, float or raft 
for carrying things across water. 

If the following were but an exercise of Dr. Macdonald's reasoning I 
should have left it in his volume where the curious might find it, yet on 



250 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

account of what seems a definite and positive ascription to a "native" I 
must give it place : 

The first meaning (to swim) seems not connected with the second (to carry), to a 
European, but a native connects them thus : a man afa tiatas, swims or floats on the sea, 
the sea afa natamole bears or carries the man ; so a man aja ki nakasu, swims holding a 
floating stick, but if he gets on to the stick and lets it float him ashore the stick is said 
to afa i carry him. The sea or the stick carries him thus, hence afa, v. t., denotes carry 
a man on one's back, then to carry anything on the back : and as a man so carried clasps 
with his arms the carrier round the chest, the head of an axe is said to afa its handle, 
and as one carrying a basket on his back holds the string of it over his shoulder, so a 
man drawing a log by a string thus over his shoulder is said to afa it, and a tug steamer 
is said to afa or tow a ship. A dog afa a piece of meat, carrying it off' firmly held by 
its teeth, and a man afa a pipe or a twig, i. e., carries it held by his teeth. A messenger 
afa, carries his message, a horse its rider, and a warrior afa, carries, i. e., leads his troop; 
also a person afa narongitesan, bears a disease or infirmity or trouble. In the Arabic 
word there is the idea of connection together (as things in a bundle). In afai, carry 
him as a floating stick carries a man in the water, or a horse carries him on land, the 
transitive preposition i gives the verb its transitive force, make to swim, to go, i. e., carry. 

This identification seems very doubtful at every point. In the matter 
of signification, floating is by the islanders quite distinguished from swim- 
ming. Through of a the Efate afa approximates ope in form, but the sense 
difficulty remains. Efate and Samoa are the forms which lack an initial con- 
sonant. Between Viti and Epi there is sense dissimilarity, but there is a 
certain formal resemblance except for the initial consonant. It might be 
argued that the fact that there is such dissimilarity shows that this con- 
sonant is in a state of flux and therefore the more readily tends to vanish. 
The mutation is not recognized in any of our Epi material. Regarded as 
n-m mutation, we have but three instances of its occurrence in our data, 
and that no nearer than Marina (312-3, 317, 324). If regarded as m-n 
mutation, our only support will lie in the equally distant Nggao and New 
Georgia in the single word 351. 

The Semitic requires all Dr. Macdonald's reasoning above cited, and 
even then wholly fails of giving satisfaction. 

187. 
aran, oran, arain, oraone, on, uen (in on and uen the radical r is changed 
to n), sand. 
Samoa, Fakaafo, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Nukuoro, Aniwa, 
Fotuna, Maori, Tahiti, Hawaii, Rarotonga, Manahiki, Mar- 
quesas: one, oneone, sand. Nuguria: owe, sand; oneone, beach. 
Mangareva: o«e, the soil; onepatapata, sand. Rapanui: oone, 
sand, gravel, clay, dirt, filth. Vate: ngone, sand. 
Viti: Oneata, the name of an island. 

Mota, Santo, Malo, Keapara, Galoma, Saa: one, sand. Leon: leon, 

on the sand. Baki: io«o, sand. Bierian: ewiowo, id. Santo 

Wulua: parono, id. Malekula: dambanaun, id. Motu, Sinau- 

goro, Hula, Rubi: feone, id. Kiriwma : kana-kentia. Boniki: 

gonugonu. Oiun: ganas. 

Arabic: horr' , horron, sand; from harra, to be hot. 

Through inability to use his critical apparatus Dr. Macdonald has solved 

his quite unnecessary difficulty by his note as to the change of radical r-n. 

A different arrangement of the Efate material will develop the true radical 



DATA AND NOTES. 251 

quite simply, on, uen for the simple stem; oraone, arain, aran, oran for 
the composite. The stem is one and the Viti, Polynesian, and much of 
the Melanesian identification is exact. 

The form oraone shows that one is compounded with an element era, and 
this may be the same as ara. In these compounds the one member through 
in is degraded into a mere n. This ora or ara may have somewhat to do 
with the per of Santo Wulua perono. When unsupported one loses its final 
vowel in on, and in uen seems to undergo such vowel shift as is found in 
arain. 

In Melanesia, so far as is not included in the general identification, we find 
the loss of the final vowel in le-on, and probably in Malekula dambana-un 
we have the same loss together with vowel shift. The form ono is found 
in composites in Baki and Bierian and in Santo Wulua. 

Having thus removed the ara from the Efat6 words there is left to the 
Arabic identification not even a resemblance. 

i88. 
aso, to bum, to be scorched. 

Samoa: 'a'asa, glowing hot. Tonga, Uvea: kakaha, hot, fiery, 
painful. Futuna: kakd, fiery, reddened by fire. Niue: 
kakd, hot, red-hot. 
Viti : nggesa, burnt or scorched in cooking. 
Aneityum: acas, cas, to burn, hot, burning; ecescas, burnt. 
Arabic: wakada, to bum, to be kindled. Hebrew: yakad, id. 
Syriac: ikad, id. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is kas. 

The vanishing of radical k in Efat^ finds support in mataku (258) to fear 
Efat6 mitaku, where also we have mitati. This granted we have an excellent 
identification in sense and form from Melanesia through Viti to Nuclear 
Polynesia. The Niue and Futuna kakd are the reduplication of the root 
after abrasion of its final consonant. One of the Aneit5mm forms points 
the way very neatly to the Viti vowel change. 

189. 
bwalo, to be empty, vain, null and void, to no purpose or effect. 

Samoa: vale, inactive, needless, worthless. Tonga: vale, m vain, 
in ukiuki-vale, to inquire in vain. Hawaii : wale, gratuitously, 
idly, without reward. 
Viti: wale, uselessly, idly, only, for nothing, gratis. 
Mota: tuwale, only. 

Arabic: batala, bull', botV , to no end, in vain, for nothing, idle. 
Hebrew : bafal, to be empty, vacant, idle. Ethiopic : batala, 
to be empty, vain. 

190. 
bebe, a butterfly. 

Samoa: pepe, a butterfly, a moth, to flutter about. Nukuoro, 
Futuna, Niue, Uvea, Fotuna, Nuguria, Tahiti, Marquesas : pepe, 
a butterfly. Maori : pepe, a grub, a moth ; pepepepe, a butterfly ; 
pepeatua, a species of butterfly. Tonga : bebe, a butterfly. 
Viti: mbembe, a butterfly. Rotuma: pep, id. 



252 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Arag, Ulawa, Saa, Fagani, Bululaha, Hula, Keapara, Galoma : pepe, 
butterfly. Epi: lepepe, id. Moanus: ndraplpi, id. New 
Georgia: pepele, id. Omba, Maewo, Wango, Vaturanga, Buka, 
Baravon, New Britain, Solomon Islands, Rubi, Suau, Sariba: 
bebe, id. Laur: bdbd, id. Mugula, Tubetube, Tagula, 

Murua: bebi, id. Savo: bebeula, id. Motu, Sinaugoro: 

kaubebe, id. Panaieti, Misima: bebebi, id. Pokau: ebebelo, id. 
Roro: peropero, id. Nada, Kiriwina: beba, id. Boniki: 
bebabeba, id. Mukawa, Raqa: arabebemta, id. Kwagila: 
karabibim, id. Taupota, Wedau; bebeu, id. Awalama: 
kapeu, id. Tavara: gopu, id. Dohu: pepega, id. Mekeo: 
fefe, id. Kiviri, Oiun: fefek, id. Lakon, Pak, Sasar, Alo 
Teqel : />e/j, id. Lo: pip, id. Norbarbar: /jet, id. Volow, 
Merlav, Gog, Motlav : beb, id. Lamassa: bam, id. Lambell: 
'hambd, id. Mota: pepe, rupe, id. Nggela: uleulebe, id. 
Buka : bawe, id. Brierly Island : bebi, a moth. Malo : vebe, 
a butterfly. Baki: bembe, id. Tanna: paubauuk, id. 
Morella: pepeue, butterfly. Amboyna: pepeul, id. 
Hebrew : 'up, 'ib'eb, to flutter. 
The identification is so complete that we need no more than simple 
inspection until we reach the forms which are either more or less than pepe. 
The pep, by abrasion of the final vowel, finds itself in Rotuma, Lakon, 
Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel, Lo, Norbarbar, Volow, Merlav, Gog, Motlav. Still 
further abrasion, or what amounts to the same thing, the unduplicated stem 
pe, does not, with perhaps a single exception, appear unsupported ; but as a 
composition member it is found in Lambell 'hambd, Mota rupe, and Nggela 
uleulebe. Our possible exception is Lamassa bam. Laur, Lamassa, and 
Lambell we have through a single channel, very German and the most com- 
petent piece of ethnography I loiow. From this we see that bd is close to 
be. In Lambell the bd is compounded ; in Lamassa, but a few miles away, 
bam may be regarded as but bd nasalized, as is sometimes the Melanesian 
case; or the m may be a mutant from p, as we shall discuss in note 207. 
Variants of pepe are easily traced in Malo iiebe, Baki bembe; and Tanna pau- 
bauuk, while remote from the standard, as Tanna lies remote from the free 
track of migration, seems struggling to preserve the same stem. In Indo- 
nesia the pepe stem is unmistakable in Morella and Amboyna. 

We now turn to the pepe composites. Lambell 'hambd we have already 
noted. Not by any means identifiable with 'ham, hut associable because at 
the northern verge, we note Motu kaubebi and Moanus ndrapipi. There is 
a liquid component which so frequently associates itself with pepe as to 
attract notice. Its simplest form is le, initial in Epi lepepe, final in New 
Georgia pepele. There is a stronger form, yet I incline to regard it identical : 
ula final in Savo bebeula, Amboyna pepeul, Morella pepeue; initial as ule in 
Nggela tileulebe. This may appear in oriori butterfly in the Lakatoi language. 
This consistent reducibility to elemental pe, and Buka bawe is so reduc- 
ible as well, removes all possibility of identification with the Hebrew word 
offered. 

We should not pass unnoticed a group of forms which Dr. Ray has col- 
lected on the New Guinea shore of Torres Straits. The meaning is wing, 



DATA AND NOTES, 253 

but that is not particularly remote from the butterfly signification. At 
least the comparison is worth making. Starting with pepe and ending 
with ani, these forms show a remarkable process of dilapidation of the 
Polynesian stem in the custody of Melanesians or worse, yet there is a 
perfect chain from pepe to ani. The form pepe is found in Mugula,Tube- 
tube, and Panaieti. The slightly variant pape is found in Dobu, Awalama, 
Taupota, Wedau, and Kubiri; and Tavara apape is a modification of the 
same. The simple, unduplicated stem, pe, is recognizable in mape of 
Galavi, Boniki, and Mukawa ; in mabe of Mugula ; and m. peapea of Sariba. 
Recurring to the pape stem we have no difficulty in following it to Oiun 
baben and Kiviri fafen. At this point we have acquired a final n, which 
thenceforward dominates the stem. Its simple series runs in this order: 
Sinaugoro pane, Mekeo pani, Galoma bane, Uni bani, Keapara vane, Pokau 
vani, Motu hani, Rubi ani. More involved forms are, Misima bpeni, Nada 
papane, Murua pinpene, Kiriwina pinipanela. 

191. 
bilikit, to peel. 

Samoa : mele'i, to husk coconuts. 

Viti: longgata, to peel: meleka, to break off a small piece of food. 

Aneityum: milinga, to peel. 

Ethiopic : lahasa, to peel. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is melek. 

We can find this in Samoa, Viti and Aneityum. The Efate m-b mutation 
we have already been compelled to recognize in umu (76) oven Efat^ ubu. 
These two instances are very satisfactory, yet there are no other except that 
similar m-v mutation in masaki (323) sick Nggela vahagi. The Viti longgata 
in which our author sees identity is no more than a partial resemblance. 

192. 
boro, the coconut leaf; a basket made thereof; the leaf plaited for thatch- 
ing houses. 

Samoa: pola, a plaited coconut leaf used to inclose the sides of a 
house. Tonga : pola, the nut leaf plaited for thatch and other 
purposes ; bolobola, a large basket made of the nut leaf. Futuna : 
pola, plaited coconut leaves. Nine: pola, a coconut-leaf mat. 
Maori : pora, a kind of mat. Tahiti : farepora, a small, neatly 
thatched house on a double canoe; haapora, a sort of long 
basket . Mangareva : pora, a general name for mats . Paumotu : 
kaporapora, a mat. Fotuna: borabora, a coconut leaf basket. 
Marquesas: poa, coconut leaves. Sikayana: pur a, thatch. 

Viti : mbola, a coconut leaf plaited for thatching, a basket. 

Mota : /jora, a basket. New Georgia : /)orM, a mat. Bougainville: 
polta, a mat. Aneityum : naburabura, a coarse basket. 

Arabic : fara', to split, to rend, to slit. 

The identification is perfect in our territory, the only variants from the 
pola type being Sikayana pura and Aneityum burabura, in New Georgia 
poru, and the unaccountable injection of < in Bougainville polta. This, 
however, may be a syncopation of polata, the pola screens which serve for 
Venetian blinds about the islander's house. As usual our author : "bworai 



254 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

to split open ; bora a basket woven out of the frond of a coconut palm whose 
stalk is split asunder." He is looking not only at bworaiyhut at the Arabic 
he is about to suggest. The slitting of the stalk would appear to the 
islander, as to us, the first and least important of the operations whereby 
the basket is produced. 

193- 
kafika, the rose apple. 

s Samoa: nonufi' a fi' a, the Malay apple. Futuna: fea/ifea, a fruit tree. 
Niue: kafika, a lofty tree. Fotuna: kafika, the rose apple. 
Tahiti: ahid, Malay apple. Maori: kahika, the white pine. 
Marquesas: kehika, kehia, ehia, tree names. Hawaii: ohia, a 
tree name. 
Viti: kavika, Malay apple. 

Mota, Lo, Maewo, Arag, Marina : gaviga, the rose apple. Tangoan 
Santo: kahika, khabika, id. Santo Wulua: keviga, id. Malo: 
avica, id. Merlav, Lakon: gavig, id. Mosin: gevig, id. 
I/eon: vegig, id. Motlav: na-gveg, id. Norbarbar: geve, id. 
Retan: vege, id. Malekula Pangkumu: havih, id. Pak: 
marag, id. Sasar: merag, id. AloTeqel: tner eg, id. Tanna: 
ni-gauvug, id. 
Hebrew: tapuah, an apple. Arabic: toff ah, id. 
The Proto-Samoan is kafik. 

The modern Samoan has reduced this stem by the initial syllable, but in 
compensation it has incorporated the name of the custard apple (Morinda 
citrifolia). With mere color justification this nonu passes in Samoan over 
to varieties of the kafika {Eugenia malaccensis) as nonuui the white and 
nonu'ula the red variety. It will, therefore, be not out of place to introduce 
a brief record of nonu, all the more since it is one of the very few words in 
Polynesia which points at all clearly to a Sanskrit source, nona in that 
language being the custard apple. 

nonu: Samoa, Nukuoro, Gilberts, British New Guinea, Tonga, Niue, 
Futuna, Marquesas (nou). 

nono: Tahiti, Mangareva. 

nino: Mortlocks, Marshalls, Tagalog, Pampangas. 

nunu: Viti. 

nona: Sanskrit, Malay. 
In reducing the element of the composite which pertains to Eugenia 
malaccensis Samoa with its fi'a differs from every language in the Polynesian 
system ; yet this vanishing tendency of the first syllable shows itself in the 
initial abrasion which gives us Tahiti ahid, Marquesas ehia and Hawaii ohia. 
In Melanesia the trisyllabic form is maintained intact in Mota, Lo,Maewo, 
Arag, Marina, Tangoan Santo, Santo Wulua, and in Malo with the abrasion 
of the initial k as in the extremes of eastern Polynesia. Our next group 
includes the dissyllables which now appear as closed stems through abrasion 
of the final vowel ; these are Merlav, Lakon, Mosin, Leon, Motlav, Malekula 
Pangkumu, and Tanna. We find yet a third group, dissyllables of open 
stem through the abrasion of the final consonant of the last preceding group ; 
these are Norbarbar and Retan. 



DATA AND NOTES. 255 

The change in the initial syllable from a to e, which we find in the remote 
Marquesas, is here observed in Santo Wulua, Mosin, Leon, Norbarbar, and 
Retan. Metathesis is observed in Leon from Mosin, and in Retan from 
Norbarbar. Retan vege might be fika, after the manner of the loss in 
Samoan ; but as Leon vegig must be Mosin gevig, which is kafik, we prefer 
to consider Retan in accord with its neighbor. Motlav na-gveg I have 
classed in the foregoing with the dissyllables of closed stem. The initial n 
is the shadow of the article, just as ni in Tanna, but Motlav is a very diffi- 
cult language to write because the article attracts the nearest vowel of the 
stem, in this case gaveg; therefore na is article for this word and in attract- 
ing has also subtracted. 

Pak, Sasar, and Alo Teqel are a separate and unassociable group. 

The Semitic proposed by Dr. Macdonald is clearly irrelevant. 

194. 
kori, kuri, oria, kuria, a dog, a brave, a warrior. 

Samoa : 'ull, a dog. Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea, Fotuna, Aniwa : 

kuli, id. Maori, Rarotonga, Mangareva, Paumotu, Sikayana: 

kuri, id. Tahiti: un, id. 
Viti: koll, a dog. 
Baki, Epi, Ambrym, Santa Cruz, Deni: kuli, a dog. lai, Tanna, 

Eromanga, Malekula, Aneityum : kuri, id. Epi : koria, kuliu, id. 

Sesake: feoma, id. Malo: vuria, id. Tangoan Santo: I'Mriw, id. 

Bierian: kuliu, id. Santo: wurin, id. 
Arabic: gorw', a young dog; gariyy' , brave. 

The identifications are satisfactory and the stem shows no variations 
until we reach Malo and Santo with the k-v mutation, which is found only 
in these two languages and in this word alone. The closely similar k-w 
mutation spreads over a wider area of speech, yet also is found in but a 
single word. The Santo word wurin derived from Dr. Macdonald's gram- 
mar of that language is so close to Tangoan Santo vuriti, that I must regard 
the final n, otherwise incomprehensible, as a fault of the press. 

The Arabic does combine in similar words the Efate significations, yet 
not even on that account is it convincing in the absence of confirmatory 
evidence to bridge the gap. 

195- 
koto bolo, a basket (bolo, basket). 

Samoa: 'ato, a basket. Tonga, Fotuna, Uvea: kato, a basket. 

Niue : kato, a basket, a bag. 
Viti: kato, a basket. 

Lo: gat, a bag. Malekula: na-cat, a basket. Malo: cete, id. 
Tanna: katum, id. Aneityum: in-cat, id.; nefehcat, a large 
basket. 
Arabic : ka'tat, a basket for carrying dates. 
As koto means a basket and bolo means a basket, the use of synonyms 
in composition is an interesting example in Melanesia of the principle of 
determinant compounds, the existence of which in Samoan I have else- 
where established (14 Journal Polynesian Society, 40). Koto is readily 
identifiable with kato in Nuclear Polynesia and Melanesia and no forms call 



256 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

for explanation except the as yet inexplicable m-final in Tanna katum. The- 
Malo cete is here included. It is probably a member of the kete series, which 
it will at least serve to introduce here. The consonant skeleton being the 
same in kete and kato, we may venture to look upon them as variants of 
very early introduction. 

Maori, Rarotonga, Futuna, Marquesas : kete, a basket. Tonga, Uvea, 
Viti : kete, the belly. Mangareva : akaketekete, to grow big (said 
of adolescent girls). Rapanui: kete, keete, basket, sack. 

Nuguria : kete, fishtrap, kiddle, food basket. Samoa : 'ete, basket, 
bag. Tahiti, Nukuoro : ete, id. Hawaii : eke, a bag, a small sack. 

Mota: gete, a basket. Malo: cete, id. Aneityum: in-ced, in-cet 
(in composition), id. 

The Aneityum with in-cat {kato) and in-cet (kete), Samoa 'ato and 'ete, 
establish satisfactorily the transition forms. As covering the sense 
passage from basket to Tonga, Uvea, and Viti belly, we may instance that 
in English of the Marquis of Queensberry rhetoric the bread-basket is a 
parallel case. 

196. 

koto-fi, kote-fi, to cut, to cut off, to break off. 

Samoa : 'oti, to cut, to clip (as the hair) ; 'oto, 'otofia, to pluck one 
here and another there. Tonga: koji, to cut with scissors;. 
koto, to crop, to shorten shrubs; koso, to cut. Futuna: koti, 
to cut; koto, to pluck a leaf from its branch. Niue: kotikoti, 
to notch. Maori, Rarotonga, Paumotu : koti, to cut. Mar- 
quesas, Mangareva: kokoti, id. Rapanui: kokoti, to cut off.^ 
Uvea: feoW, to clip, to shear. Tahiti: oti, id. Hawaii: oki,id. 

Viti: koti, shears; kotiva, to clip or shear; kosova, to cut across. 

Lambell : ^ofo', to cut. King: toki, id. l/aTaassa: kuti, id. Mota: 
^of, id. ; t^o^, a cutter; ^0^0, to stab. Pala : fewi, to cut through. 

Arabic: kata'a, cut, cut off, separate. 

The Proto-Samoan stems are kotif and kotof. 

We here assemble three forms. Koti and koto are manifestly associable. 
As to the final radical consonant we establish kotif on Viti and Efat^, kotof 
on Samoa and Efate, and kosof on Viti. Of these forms kotif and kotof are 
identical in respect of the complete consonantal skeleton and differ only in 
the unaccented and weak vowel ; kotof and kosof are in vowel agreement and 
differ only in the t-s mutation, which has been proved a normal Polynesian 
change. With such strong concords and with such simple differences I 
regard the three as ancient variants of a parent stem. 

Let us now examine the distribution of these forms. 

kotif: Samoa, Viti, Efate, Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Maori, Rarotonga, 
Paumotu, Marquesas, Mangareva, Tahiti, Hawaii — in other words . 
it belongs equally to the Proto-Samoan and the Tongafiti swarms. 

kotof: Samoa, Efate, Tonga, Futuna — purely Proto-Samoan. 

kosof: Tonga, Viti, and Uvea an interesting transition form. 

Our Melanesian material except in Efate does not include kotof, the Mota 
f-stem being omitted from the consideration. In King we have a simple • 



DATA AND NOTES. 257 

metathetic variant. Kotif occurs in Efate, in three of the New Ireland 
languages at the eastern Indonesian gateway, and probably here are to be 
classed the abraded Mota forms. Kosof is not positively but quite likely 
identified in Mota goso. 

Tonga alone employs the three forms. 

197. 
lago, to prop, the wooden pins whose sharpened ends are driven into the 
sama (outrigger) of a canoe and whose upper ends crossed hold 
and bear up the nakiat (struts) . 
Samoa : Idngo, props to rest a canoe on, to raise on supports. Tonga : 
lango, a fulcrum, to raise by logs or pieces of wood, blocks of 
wood on which an3rthing is raised. Nine: lango, a support. 
Maori : rango, the skid or roller over which logs, canoes, and the 
like are dragged. Mangareva : raw^o, floor joists. Rapanui: 
rango, bed, scaffold, ladder; rangorango, stool. Rarotonga: 
tirango, threshold. Paumotu: tirangorango, joists. Tahiti: 
rao, a block or roller under a boat, sleepers under a floor. 
Viti : lango, a threshold, pieces of wood on which anything is set. 
Mota: lango, to put rollers under; ilango, a roller; taplagolago, 
cylindrical. Nggela : tapalagolago (from Mota), a cart, a wheel. 
Merlav: geilang, a roller for a canoe. Santo: lako, props of 
a canoe. 
Arabic: rakaha, to prop. 
The Pro to-Samoan. stem is langom. 

The word runs its course across our area with only the minor ng-g 
mutation in Efate and Nggela and partly in Mota, and the equivalent ng k 
mutation in Santo. 

198. 
mat', ebb, low water. 

Samoa: masa, taimasa, low tide; masamasa, to be making ebb. 
Futuna: masa, dry, waterless, empty. Nukuoro: masa, 

dry. Tonga: mahaifo,mahamaha, mamaha, ehh; maha, empty. 
Niue : maha, empty. Uvea : maha, dry. Rapanui : taimaha, 
low tide. Nuguria: umasa, low; tai kumaha, lagoon is dry. 
Viti: matt, to ebb; matha, empty, dry. 
Mota: wawflja, dry; mama jai^a, parched. Nggela: mamaha, dry 

(of land). Aneityum: mese, dry; in-mas, ebb tide. 
Arabic : mat' a, to macerate and dissolve. Hebrew : masas, to melt, 
to flow down, to waste. 

We have here two words : one, Bfat^ mat' and Viti mati, ebb tide, with 
no previous history ; the other, masa, becomes ebb tide only in a resultant 
fashion. Ma^a has the basic signification of dry; this is the only sense in 
Uvea and Nukuoro, in Mota and Nggela ; it is associated with another sense 
in Futuna, Viti and Aneityum. The first secondary sense, empty, is the 
only signification in Niue, and in association with another sense it occurs 
in Viti and Futuna. The third signification is dryness in a restricted sense, 
the beach or reef from which the water has receded, that is to say, ebb or 
low water. This is the only sense in which the word is used in Samoa ; in 
Tonga it is associated with the empty, and in Aneityum with the dry sense. 



258 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

In Viti we find matha of the masa stem ; this renders it quite unlikely that 
mati has any relation thereto. If Viti mati fails, then Efate mat' is left un- 
supported. We are therefore justified in rejecting this identification, so far 
as it enters Polynesia; we can only recognize an Efate- Viti identification 
to be added to the list of words established in Viti as of Melanesian source. 

Of course even without these considerations the proposed Semitic iden- 
tification fails utterly on the ground of sense, for it can have no relation 
whatever to words of the meaning here involved. 

199. 
mata, mwata, a snake. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea : ngata, a snake. Maori : ngata, 
a snail, a slug, a leech, a looper caterpillar. Fotuna : ta-ngata, 
a snake. 

Viti: ngata, a snake. 

Malo, Rubi, Dobu : moata, a snake. Mota, Mugula, Sariba, Misinia: 
mata, id. Suau, Tavara, Awalama, Taupota, Wedau, Galavi, 
Boniki, Mukawa, Raqa, Kiviri, Oiun: mota, id. Santo: mata, 
maura, id. Bierian: n'mata, id. Malekula: na-mat, id. 

Baki: maro, id. Murua: mateta, id. Nada: moteta, id. 

Arabic: Ht'at', 'at' a', a snake. 

The parent of these forms is a problem. It can scarcely have been ngata, 
for ng is a consonant which in all the Melanesian languages here adduced 
is susceptible of ready reproduction as ng or n. Still less can it have been 
mata, for in one of the Efate forms, in Malo, and in Mota (Codrington dis- 
tinguishes it as mata) we see a positive effort to express not the pure m 
which they have and use but something somehow different, a suggestion 
of 7nh. We have no means of determining or of representing a parent 
sound which shall class as its children ng-mw-m. 

The identifications of this ngata are in other respects distinctly satisfac- 
tory. I can not include therewith the Baki maro and its congener Santo 
maura. These we shall consider true Melanesian material. The absence 
of the word from the Tongafiti migration (except Maori with its modified 
sense) is a zoological rather than a linguistic lacuna; it is conditioned by 
the fact that east of the strait which parts German from American Samoa 
there are no snakes. 

The Semitic words mean snake; they possess an a and a t apiece, but 
these are insufficient proof of identity. 

200. 
mauri, to live; maurian, life. 

Samoa : mdui, a Manu'a salutation, 'ua mdui mat. Tonga, Nine : 
moui, alive, life, to live. Futuna, Uvea: mauli, id. Vat^: 
mauri, to live. Aniwa: mouri. Nukuoro: mount, to live. 
Fotuna: no-mauri, id.; ta-mauri, life: emauri, to feel well. 

Viti : maurimu, a word of blessing used by the priests when people 
take a thing to the house of the god ; conjecturally, mauri, life, 
and -mu, possessive suffix of the second singular, "thy life," or, 
"may thou live." Rotuma: mauri, to live; amauri, to make, 
to live; amauringa, savior. 



DATA AND NOTES. 259 

Sesake, Ulawa, Waima, Kabadi, Galoma, Motu: mauri, to live. 
Saa: mauri, meuri, id.; maurihe, life, safety. Santo: meuri, 
to live. Bierian: mauli,i6..; ni mauliana, life. Baki: meouli, 
to live; meoulian, life. Malo: mauru, life, to live. Tangoan 
Santo: nauri, to live. Mota: maur, to live. Malekula: 

maur, id.; inauran, life. Ponape: maur, to live. Marshalls: 
mour, id. Vaturanga: maumauri, to live; maurisali, life. New 
Britain : wavi aurpa, to make to live . Tanna : murif, life . L,aka- 
toi language : makuri, life, alive. Keapara, Hula : maguli, life. 
Arabic: 'as'a, 'a'is", ma'as", ma"is" , ma''is'at, to live. 
Before discussing the stem in its greater extension I would comment on 
my identification in Samoa and Viti. When we observe the general use 
of mauri, to live, we should expect to find it certainly in Samoa and very 
likely in Viti. In neither does it appear on the surface ; Samoa has ola to 
live, a word wholly of the Tongafiti migration, and Viti in mbula to live 
employs a word of Melanesian stock which enters Samoan only in the inter- 
jection apuld in congratulation upon safe delivery from a sneeze. 

The Viti maurimu is susceptible of no other explanation based on exist- 
ing Viti material, and the explanation which I have proposed has no objec- 
tion other than that mauri is not elsewhere used in Viti as signifying to live ; 
therefore I have no hesitation in believing this to be a valid explanation. 
It is interesting to observe that in wishing long life in ceremonial phrase 
the Viti uses the Samoan word, the Samoan the Viti. Yet we have a par- 
allel example in our own speech. Those of us who salute the sneezer are 
more than likely to ejaculate Prosit! Dieu vous benisse! Gesundheit! rather 
than English. Piety has always been prone to find somewhat esoteric in 
the foreign : ' ' Mesopotamia, blessed word !' ' 

In our Samoan authorities, and George Pratt was a marvel of recondite 
information, no explanation is offered of the pleasant Manu'a phrase 'ua 
mdui mai. To give it sense by identifying it with mauli to live needs but 
to establish the evanescence of the inner liquid. In my work on Samoan 
phonetics (17 Journal of the Polynesian Society, 154) I have proved not 
only that this is a Polynesian change, but that it holds in Samoa in partic- 
ular. In this material it needs but the comparison of Futuna with Tonga. 
The l-n mutation is peculiarly persistent in Nukuoro. 

Thus far we have found the word Nuclear Polynesian and signifying to 
live. But it is found in Tongafiti possession and meaning native, indige- 
nous rather than foreign. There is no gradation of signification. We are 
thus led to discriminate between the two swarms. The Proto-Samoan 
swarm left the common center with mauli meaning to live ; the Tongafiti 
did not follow until it had popularized ola in the sense to live and had set 
mauli into the background of a secondary sense. Meaning native, it is in 
the following series : Maori, Tahiti, Mangareva, Paumotu : maori. Hawaii : 
maoli. Marquesas: maoi. 

201. 
nono, ne, noi, to dwell or be beside some one, to abide. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna : nofo, to sit, to dwell, to live with. Niue, 
Uvea: nofo, to sit, to dwell. Fotuna: no-nofo, to dwell, to 
remain. Fakaafo, Aniwa, Vate : wo/o, to sit. Maori, Tahiti : 



260 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

noho, to sit, to dwell, to live with. Hawaii, Marquesas, 
Paumotu : noho, to sit, to dwell. Mangareva : noho, to remain, 
to dwell. Sikayana, Tongarewa : noho, to sit, to stay. Mana- 
hiki, Nukuoro : noho, to sit . Bukabuka : noo, to be . Rarotonga : 
noo, to sit, to dwell. Moiki: noho, id. Rapanui: noho, to 
sit, to dwell, a bench. Nuguria: nofo, to sit: unoho, to dwell; 
nahoa, bench. 

Viti: no, to lie (of things) ; nbnb, a place to lie on. Rotuma: noh, 
to sit, noho, a place. 

Motu : noho, to dwell, to stay. Vaturanga : noho (are mate noho, 
they are dead, have died: "this is, no doubt, the Maori noho to 
sit" — Codrington). Nggao: nokro, to sit. Pala: noh, to lie. 

Hebrew: navah, naah, to sit down, to rest, to dwell. 

The Polynesian stem is unalterably a dissyllable, the only change which 
it exhibits being the mutation /-/i-extinction, the last being found in Raro- 
tonga and Bukabuka. In Rotuma noh (i.e., noho under terminal abrasion) 
we find a transition form to no in Viti and Efat6, thence by reduplication 
nono. The principal objection to this chain of forms lies in the fact that 
while Viti and Bfate agree upon no-iorras Motu and Vaturanga, at a greater 
backward distance from Poljoiesia, have noho. In Nggao f-kr gives us an 
anomalous mutation, of which this is the sole instance, for in all our colla- 
tion of /-variants we find nothing approximating this wholly irregular kr. 
The passage from sit-sens^ to 6e-sense seems far greater to us than to 
the islanders. They have not arrived at the need of a word to express 
being in the abstract. The occurrence of this signification in Vaturanga 
far to the west balances the extremeness of the easting of Bukabuka, in 
which it is again found. 

202. 
rakum, rakoma, a crab. 

Samoa : 'ama'ama, a crab (Grapsidae) found in the rocks. Tonga : 
kamakama, a rock crab. 'Niue: kamakama, a crah. Futuna: 
kamakama, a little black crab that lives in chinks of the rocks. 
Viti : nggumunggumu, a kind of crab. 
Epi : lakum, a crab. 
Arabic: h'umh'um', a crab. 

"We lack data on which to establish through transition forms the identity 
which seems probable between the kama of Nuclear Poljntiesia and the Ef at6 
and Epi ra-kum. 

203. 

sar i, sari, to saw ; seri, to cut with a sawing motion ; sara, a saw. 

Samoa : sala, to lop, to cut off ; sele, a bamboo knife, to cut or clip 
(as the hair) ; selei, to cut, to shear, to slash. Futuna, Uvea : 
sele, a knife, to cut off, to cut. Nukuoro : selesele, to carve, to 
engrave. Fotuna: no-sere, to cut; seria, a saw. Tonga: 
hele, a knife, to cut, to lacerate; hehele, to cut. Nine: hele, 
hehele, to cut up, to reap, to castrate. Hawaii: mahele, to 
divide, to cut in pieces. Maori : here, a spear for killing birds. 
Paumotu : kohere, to cleave, to split. 



DATA AND NOTES. 261 

Viti: sele, a bamboo knife; seleva, to cut with a knife, to castrate. 

Nggela, Belaga : sari, to cut. Malo : sarosaro, to saw ; tsaro, a saw. 
Mota : sal, to cut with a drawing motion ; gasal, a knife ; sir, to 
shave. Gog: ^(wa/, a knife. Ma.ewo: siri, to shave; siriva, 
to shave off something. Pak, Leon : sir, to shear. Sesake : 
soro, a saw; soroa, to saw. Pala: sele, a bush knife. 

Hebrew: nas'ar, to saw. Aramaic: nsar, id. 

Throughout the data assembled in this item there is manifest a tendency 
to particularize the manner of cutting. Thus Efate, Fotuna, Malo, Sesake, 
all specify the saw ; Samoa, Pak, Leon have the shearing and clipping sense ; 
Mota and Maewo shave ; many of these languages indicate the knife ; Nuku- 
oro suggests the burin. From this presentation we might infer an equip- 
ment of saws, scissors, razors, lancets and all manner of edged tools. Far 
otherwise is the fact. The silex-edged bamboo splinter, the lip of a shell 
ground sharp, the tooth of a shark — these are the cutting tools of the Pacific 
islands, east as well as west. The definition is at fault which gives the sense 
of saw to any word of a people which has no tool that cuts by notches in a 
blade, of shear to men who know no scissors. It would be idle to seek to 
differentiate these words by the tool employed, for a rude knife is all there 
is. The most that we may venture upon is to segregate the data by the 
former vowel. 

E. sele: Samoa, Futuna, Uvea, Nukuoro, Fotuna, Tonga, Niue, Hawaii, 
Maori, Paumotu, Viti — altogether Polynesian. 
seli: Fotuna, Efat6 — Melanesian, and wholly so if the Fotuna form 
be considered due to neighboring New Hebrides influence. 
Mota, Maewo, Pak, Leon — all northern New Hebrides. 
• Samoa, Efate. salo: Malo. 

Efat6, Nggela, Belaga. sal: Efate, Mota, Gog. 
Sesake. 

Viti and Maewo seem to indicate a root closed in v which does not else- 
where appear, which had been quite lost at the time when Samoa erected 
the verb selei upon the noun sele. 

204. 
sik e, sek e, saki, to raise; sike-ti, to grasp with tongs. 

Samoa: si'i, to lift. Futuna: siki, to lift, to raise, to remove. 
Uvea: fakasiisii, to raise; hiki, to lift up. Tonga: hiki, to lift, 
to remove. Niue: hiki, to land, as fish from a canoe. Maori: 
hiki, to lift up, to carry, to nurse. Mangareva : hiki, to hold 
a child in the arms or on the knees. Paumotu : hiki, to fondle. 
Mangaia: iki, to nurse a child in the arms. Marquesas: hiki, 
hii, to nurse a child. Tahiti: hii, to nurse, to dandle, to take 
a child in the arms. Hawaii : hii, to lift up, to carry, to nurse. 
Viti: sikita, to raise, to lift up. 
Aneityum : ahieng, to drag, to draw up. 
Hebrew : hazak, to hold fast, to take hold of, to seize. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is sikit. 

The Efat^ siketi is associable by reason of its form, but the sense is too 
remote and too particular for a satisfactory identification. 



I. 


sili: 


A. 


sala. 




sali: 


0. 


solo: 



262 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

In Polynesia are a primary and a secondary sense. The sense of to raise 
is exclusively Nuclear Polynesian including Efate. In the Tongafiti migra- 
tion the sense is exclusively to nurse a child, a particular instance of lifting 
up. I have been willing to mark the sharpness of this division by using in 
the foregoing sentence the word exclusively, yet with the full knowledge 
that Hawaii and Maori seem to contradict. I have already pointed out the 
evidence of single words showing a direct migration from Samoa to Hawaii 
by the north and to New Zealand by the south. This combination of the 
two sharply marked senses in Hawaii and Maori seems to me to be associable 
therewith. 

Mr. Tregear's suggestion that Aneityum ahieng shows kinship with this 
stem does not commend itself to me. 

205. 

sila i, sela i, sol i, to rub, as to rub oneself with oil. 

Samoa : soloi, a towel, to wipe ; solo, a towel, to wipe as after bathing. 
Futuna: solo, to wipe. Tonga: holo, a towel, to wipe, to dry; 
holoi, to wipe, to dry off, to rub off. Niue : holoholo, a hand- 
kerchief, towel, napkin, to wash the hands or body. Uvea : 
holo, holoi, holoholoi, to rub, to wipe, to clean. Hawaii: holoi, 
to wash, to wipe, to brush, to cleanse. Rapanui : horoi, to clean, 
to wipe out ; horohoro, to brush. Maori, Tahiti : horoi, to wash. 
Mangareva: horoi, oroi, to wipe, to wash. Mangaia: oroi, 
to wash. Rarotonga : orei, to wipe, to wash. Marquesas : 
hooi, id. 

Viti : solota, to rub, to dry oneself after bathing. 

Motu: huria, to wash, to scrub. Mota: sarag, to wipe; sarav, to 
rub; saravag, to brush. Aneityum: ruhoi, to rub. 

Arabic: "asala, "usuV, to wash. 

This solo stem is not clearly distinguishable from olo (331) to rub. The 
motion of the hands being the same, solo may be a particular instance of 
olo. For this reason it has not seemed desirable to attempt rigid accuracy 
in assigning the Melanesian examples. 

In general we may note a distinction in sense between Nuclear Polynesia 
and the Tongafiti eastern extension. Nuclear Polynesia referring to the 
drying after bathing, eastern Polynesia to the bathing. The only exception 
to this in Nuclear Polynesia is Niue which has both senses. Maori, Tahiti 
and Mangaia are restricted to the washing sense ; Hawaii, Mangareva, the 
Marquesas, and Rarotonga have both. In Melanesia Motu has the Tonga- 
fiti washing sense, Mota and Aneityum accord with Nuclear Polynesia. 

Aneityum ruhoi is metathetic. 

206. 

siua, siuo, siwo, suwa, sua, to descend. 

The following words signify down, to be down, to come down : 

Tonga, Niue: hifo. Samoa, Futuna, Uvea, Fotuna, Nuguria, 
Aniwa: ifo. Maori, Tahiti, Hawaii, Marquesas, Rapanui, 



DATA AND NOTES. 263 

Mangareva, Moiki : i/io. Faumotn : ihoiho. 'Nnkuoro : hakaiho, 
to go down. 
Viti: sivo, debased, dethroned, put out of office, a tropical sense 
germane to that in Samoa ifonga. Rotuma : sio, down. 

These words signify down : 

Vaturanga: sivo. Tangoan Santo : sibo. Omba: hivo. Nguna, 
Mota, Santo, Sesake: siwo. Malo: siuo. Merlav, Maewo, 
Sesake:jMwo. Oog: suw,sug. An&ityuva.:asuol,suko. Lakon: 
hew. Eromanga : sep. Roro : tivo. Pokau : divo. Mekeo : kipo. 
Wedau: ipu. Mukawa; sipu. Tavara: hopu. Wedau: opu. 
Galoma: ribo. Keapara: rigo. Motu: diho. Tubetube: siio. 
Raro: zi, azi. 

Arabic: safala, suful', sifV, to be low, to descend. 

With unchanging vowels the Polynesian identifications move in a regular 
course of mutation of the two consonants, .y-/i-extinction, /(i;)-/i-extinction. 
We observe in this a tendency, not without exceptions, to maintain the 
labial strong when the lingual is preserved, and to obscure the labial in 
the aspiration of its series where the lingual has become extinct. 

The Melanesian affiliates call for more detailed examination. 

The sibilant is retained by all except that in Lakon it merges in the 
aspiration, and here the initial aspirate is explosive, as if hv or vh; Omba, 
too, emploA^s the aspirate. We do not find a single instance in which the 
labial is of the same value as in Samoa. In two languages it has been 
strengthened to a mute, in Tangoan Santo to the sonant, in Eromanga to 
the surd. In these languages the surd spirant is replaced by the sonant, 
v: Vaturanga, Omba. In the greater number the reduction has progressed 
as far as the semivowel of this series, w, or to the nearest vowel, u, the 
distinction not being made clear in the absence of the scientific alphabet : 
Efate, Nguna, Mota, Santo, Sesake, Merlav, Maewo, Gog, Lakon, Malo. In 
two instances there occurs the rare leap from labial to palatal, to k in 
Aneityum and to g in Gog. The former vowel remains at i in about half 
of Melanesia. It changes to u in Efate, Merlav, Maewo, Sesake, Gog and 
Aneit)mm, Efate and Sesake having the i-iorva. as well. It changes to e 
in Lakon and Eromanga. The latter vowel remains fixed at o except in 
Efate and the languages which admit terminal abrasion, Gog, Lakon, and 
Eromanga. The Aneityum asuol I include because of the sense, but I 
can not identify the beginning and the ending, yet embraced therein is an 
element which, if independent, could be referred to sifo. 

207. 

tabu, tab, bakatabtabu, to be forbidden, prohibited, sacred. 

Tonga: tabu, forbidden, consecrated, sacred. Samoa, Futuna, 
Nine, Uvea, Maori, Tahiti, Rarotonga, Rapanui, Marquesas, 
Mangareva, Fotuna, Aniwa: tapu, id. Paumotu: tapu, an 
oath, to swear. Nukuoro: to/>M, prohibition. Hamaxi: kapu, 
forbidden, consecrated, sacred. 
Viti: tambu, unlawful, forbidden, sacred. 



264 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Buka, Baravon, Nggela, Belaga: tambu, sacred, holy, prohibited. 
Merlav: 'z;atoOT6M, to make holy. Omba: tambetambe, toworship. 
Duke of York : tabu (watabunabulu) , sacred . Dobu, New Britain : 
tabu, sacred, holy, prohibited ; watabu, to hallow. Suau : tabuna, 
sacred. Pokau : feafcttfea^w, id. Mekeo : o/tt, id. Mot\i:koau- 
ahu, id. Aneityum : in-tap, a sacred place ; itap, sacred, holy, for- 
bidden ; imiitap, to hallow, to make sacred. Mota : tapu, sacred. 
Malo: sab, saburu, id. Tanna: asim, id. Bierian: ham, id. 
Motu: tabu, a very important feast, a species of mythical beings. 
Arabic: dabba, dabbu, to prohibit. 
An interest exterior to our present study pertains to this word in the 
fact that it is one of the two words, tattoo the other, which the English 
has borrowed from the Polynesian. 

In scarcely altered skeleton of vowels and consonants tapu occurs in 
Polynesia and in Melanesia. In the western island world it undergoes less 
variation than almost any of the Polynesian loan material. In Omba the 
final u becomes e, in Bfate and Aneityum it undergoes a terminal abrasion. 
We need give particular attention only to the following forms. 
Malo sab (of a man) saburu (of a woman) . This needs but the establish- 
ment of the t-s mutation to prove its identity. I have already (17 Journal 
of the Polynesian Society, 212) proved it to exist as between Polynesia and 
Viti; in the material now under examination it clearly appears in talinga 
(350) ear Marina salinga, buto (247) navel Buka vuso, mate (318) to die 
Aneitjmm mas. 

Next upon this follows Tanna asim. Taking the s as now accounted for, 
we have to consider a p-m mutation. In note 190 I have found a case 
which is susceptible of this interpretation, and taking that with this there 
seems to me a probability of this change. We have abundant proof of a 
nasal reinforcement of p and b, mp and mb. It is quite possible that when 
such a nasalized consonant was transmitted at second hand to others to 
whom the double consonant was harsh they might excise the radical mem- 
ber of the composite and in their ignorance of the true form retain the 
purely accidental nasal. Bierian ham., then, would derive from Malo sab 
in the vowel and from Tanna asim in the p-m mutation, while the change 
from .? to fe is so common as to call for no note. 

208. 
tafe, tabe, to flow out, to go out. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea: tafe, to flow, to run. Fotuna: 
no-tafe, id. Tahiti, Mangareva : tofee, id. Paumotu: tofee, a 
river. Nukuoro: tahea, to drift along. Maori: whakatahe, to 
clear from obstruction, as a watercourse or channel. Hawaii : 
kahe, to run, to flow. Marquesas: tahe, to flow, to gfush, to 
stream, to trickle. Rapanui: tahe, to flow. Nuguria: tahe, 
a current. 

Viti : ndave, to flow ; ndavendave, the channel in which liquids flow, 
or the source of them ; ndaveta, a passage through a reef. 

Nggela : tow, to flow. Motu : a to/iedii, to overflow. Malekula: 
jivjiv, to run (nose). Malo: madividivi, id. Baki: jevi, id. 

Aramaic: dub, to flow out. Hebrew: zub, id. 



DATA AND NOTES. 265 

There is no need to comment upon the identifications within the Pacific 
area except in respect of one particular. Viti ndaveta has a form resem- 
blance to ndave but the sense does not so clearly hang. I have included 
it here because it seems to suggest a radical tafet, which may appear also 
in Motu atahedid. Yet in Viti the passive is ndavena, in which the sug- 
gestion of final n is equally worthy of consideration. In Polynesia there is 
no evidence to warrant the idea that tafe was ever other than an open root. 

209. 

tanga, tonga, tronga, rong, a basket, the stomach. 

Samoa: tow^a, a basket. Futuna : tow^a, a sack. Nine, Uvea, 
Rapanui, Nukuoro : tanga, a bag. Tonga : tangai, a narrow 
bag, a sack. Nuguria: tana-mimi, the bladder. 

Viti: tanga, a bag, a pocket, a purse. 

Arag : tanga, a bag. Sesake : ndanga, id. Motu : tanga, a bag, 
a deep basket. Tangoan Santo: tanga, a basket. 

Hebrew : tene', a basket. 

210. 

tef i, tefi, tetefi, to cut, to circumcise. 

Samoa: tefe, to cut, as circumcising. Fotuna: tefe, to circumcise. 
Maori: tehe, the glans penis left uncovered by the prepuce as 
if circumcised. Tahiti: tehe, to castrate animals, to slit the 
prepuce above. Mangareva, Marquesas: tehe, to circumcise, 
to castrate. Rapanui : tehe, to split ; tehetehe, a notch. Hawaii : 
kahe, to cut or slit longitudinally, to castrate; kaheomaka, 
kaheule, to circumcise after the Hawaiian fashion. 

Viti: teve, to circumcise. 

Mota : teve, to cut with a drawing motion ; teveteve, a knife. Merlav : 
tevtev, a knife. Malekula: teve, to circumcise, to cut with a 
bamboo knife. Bierian : mdeve, to circumcise. Baki: jivi, id. 

Arabic : 'as' aba, to cut. 

Little calls for note in the Pacific identification. In Hawaii we observe 
the e-a change which does not elsewhere appear. The Bierian mdeve is a 
variant of the t-nd characteristic of that Epi dialect. The Baki jivi and 
tafe (208) to flow Malekula jivjiv to run at the nose exhibit the t-j mutation 
which is rare in Melanesia but is the normal change from Samoa to Tonga 
before e and i. 

The word appears in Nuclear Polynesia only in Samoa and Viti, and is 
there restricted to circumcision. In its occurrence in eastern Polynesia it 
combines with the circumcision sense that of castration. In Samoa it is 
defined as "the operation equivalent to circumcision," in Hawaii "to cir- 
cumcise after the Hawaiian fashion," in Tahiti "to slit the prepuce above." 
The operation is so singular that in almost all the versions of the Bible in 
the Pacific the word circumcision has been rendered by peritome, a trans- 
literation from the Greek, rather than by the employment of this word 
from the vernacular. 



266 THE POLrYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The operation is surgically described by Dr. Kramer in "Samoa," ii, 6i : 

Die Beschneidung, 'o le tefenga {teje beschneiden) , bei der es sich nicht um Circum- 
cision wie die Englander sagen, handelt, sondern um einfache Spaltung der Vorhaut, 
also Einschneidung am oberen Rande, wie allgemein in Indonesien ublich, wird so 
ausgefiihrt, dassmaneinenSpatelunter die Vorhaut schiebt und diese durch einen Schlag 
mit einem scharfen Gegenstand als Haifischzahn, Muschel, Bambusmesser, neuerdings 
natiirlich mit Eisenmesser durchtrennt. Sie wird bei den samoanischen Jiinglingen, 
ahnlich wie bei den Mohammedanern, bei Eintritt der Mannbarkeit, stets zwischen dem 
7. und 15. Lebensjahre ausgefiihrt. ReUgiose Gebrauche wie bei andern Volkern, z. B. 
auf Fidji, wo die Operation auf den Nangaplatzen geschah und wo richtige Circumcision 
geiibt zu werden scheint, scheinen auf Samoa nie mit der Operation, die meist von 
einem darin Erfahrenen ausgeiibt wurde, verbunden gewesen zu sein. Das leitende 
Motiv scheint fiir Samoa nur in der ReinHchkeit zu liegen, indem gesagt wird, dass kein 
samoanisches Madchen mit einem unbeschnittenen JiingHng_schlafen wiirde. Deshalb 
nennen die Samoaner die Bliite der Amorphophallus-Pflanze {teve) welche dem mann- 
lichen GHede nicht unahnlich sieht und einen fotiden Geruch verbreitet, wie ich mich 
selbst zu iiberzeugen Gelegenheit hatte, tafao, und ebenso nennen sie einen unbe- 
schnittenen Jtinghngspenis. Der Arzt weiss, dass dies nicht ohne Grund geschieht. Wenn 
mann nun behauptet, dass die Beschneidung bei den Juden an Stelle unserer Taufe 
(am 8. Tage) ausgeiibt, rein rituell sei, und dass Reinlichkeitsgedanken feme lagen, so 
mag das sekundar so geworden sein, urspriinglich wird man aber die bei den oriental- 
ischen Volkern ausgeiibte Beschneidung auf den Reinlichkeitsgedanken, der in Samoa 
nach langst eingefiihrtem und allgemein ausgebreitetem Christentum heute allein noch 
diese Sitte aufrecht zu erhalten im stande ist, zuriickfuhren miissen. 



211. 



tuk i, tuki, to strike, to beat, to pound. 

Tonga: tuki, to strike, to drive, to drub. Futuna: tuki, to beat, 
to strike, to hit with a hammer, rock or j&st. Uvea: tuki, to 
strike, to beat. Nine: iwfei, to knock. Nukuoro: tuki, 

to beat, to strike, to pound. Maori: tuki, to ram, to butt, to 
strike endwise, to beat. Rarotonga : tuki, to strike, to beat. 
Rapanui: tukituki, to bray. Marquesas: tuki, to beat poi, to 
bruise, to strike, to bray with a pestle. Mangareva: tuki, to 
pound, to bray with a pestle. Paumotu: tukituki, to hit 
against, to strike, to pound. Nuguria: tukituki, to beat; a 
breadfruit beater. Fotuna : no-tukia, to strike with the fist. 
Samoa: tu'i, to thump, to beat, to pound, to strike with 
the fist. Tahiti: tui, to butt, to strike, to pound. Hawaii: 
kui, to pound with the end of a thing, to smite, to hammer. 

Viti : tuki, to beat or knock with the fist, to hammer. 

Belaga : tutui, to pound. Baki : juki, to strike with the fist. Male- 
kula : tice, id. Pala : tuke, to beat. 

Hebrew: duk, dakak, to beat, to pound. Arabic: dakka, dakka, id. 

There is nothing in these identifications involving any principle with 
which we have not already become familiar. 

There is, however, an interesting specialization in the sense. It is, of 
course, well understood that peoples on the speech plane in which we find 
the languages of this study have a large number of distinct terms whereby 
to describe an act as performed in a certain manner or through the employ- 
ment of a certain implement in cases where the languages of superior culture 
make use of a general term for the act limited by an adverbial modifier 



DATA AND NOTES. 267 

detailing the manner or the implement. Thus, in the terms of the present 
instance, we should say "to strike with A, B, C, . . . X, Y, Z," covering 
every possible thing with which a blow could be inflicted from the simplest 
pugilism through fustigation to the fulmination of the bolt from the blue 
ineluctable. But our islander would maintain a series of distinct verbs 
from "to strike with A" clean through to the crisscross row if the tale of 
his striking machinery should extend so far. 

In this instance we shall find that we are dealing with material collected 
by just short of a score of observers, each independent of the other, each 
under the control of his own personal equation of observation, apprecia- 
tion, and ability to reproduce in one language the idiom of another. For 
this reason we shall all the more highly regard the evidences of special sense 
in tuki. Maori gives us "to strike endwise," Hawaii "to pound with the 
end of a thing," the Marquesas and Mangareva the same idea in particular 
terms as "to bray with a pestle." Next we find a group "to strike with 
the fist," Futuna, Samoa, Viti, Baki, Malekula. From sight of many such 
encounters I can aver that Pacific pugilism has none of the niceties of the 
straight-arm jab, the left hook to the jaw, and the other fine touches of the 
diction of the prize ring. A blow in such combats is delivered by regard- 
ing arm and fist as helve and head respectively of a hammer wherewith 
to belabor the head and shoulders of the opponent. The motion of such 
a blow is exactly that of using the pestle or the hammer or the rock in the 
hand. The motion can be traced still farther by the curious in the defini- 
tions here assembled. 

212. 

ulua, to put forth leaves, to grow up (of plants and hair) ; uluulua, to be 
full of leaves, to be hairy. 

Samoa: uluulu, to be umbrageous (of trees), to be bushy (of the 
beard) . Tonga : ulu, thick, bushy (as a dress of leaves) . Niue : 
ulu, hair. Nuguria: raww/M, id. Hawaii: ulu, to grow; uluulu, 
to grow thick. Maori : mjm, a single hair. Mangaia: uruuru, 
coarse hair. Mangareva : uru, feathers, hair on the body. 

Viti : vakaulu, having a large head of hair or a wig. 

The following words signify hair : 

Lo: ul. Deni: ulu. Mota, Maewo: ului. Sesake: ululu. Bpi, 

Arag: ilu. Ambrym, Hi, wolu. Marina: vul. Omba: 

vulugi. Norbarbar: wulugi. Volow: iligi. Nifilole: lu. 

Suau: uru. Tubetube: hulu. Mugula, Sariba: kuru. Nada, 

Kiriwina: kuhi. Tagula: wuluwulia. 
Arabic: 'ala, 'aluw', to go up; 'ilawat, the head. Hebrew: 'alah, 

to go up; 'aleh, leaf, leaves; 'oleh, sprouting forth, growing up. 

lulu, hair (of the head, face or body) . 
The following all mean hair, feather : 

Samoa, Uvea, Futuna, Tonga, Niue : fulu. Maori, Tahiti : huruhuru. 
Mangareva: huru. Rapanui: huhuru. Nuguria: hahuru. 
Hawaii: hulu. Marquesas: huu. Rarotonga: uru. 
Viti: vulua, hair about the pubes. Rotuma: leav, hair. 



268 TH^ POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

In connection with the words here assembled it is quite impossible to 
dissociate. the two stems ulu and fulu. It is probable that in my theory 
of word formation byconsonantal coefficients the explanation will be found. 

Before proceeding to our task of tracing out the intricacies here presented 
I wish to call attention to the existence in Polynesia of yet another word 
for hair, lauulu. Where a distinction is made fulu is the hair of the body, 
lauulu that of the head inclusive of the beard, yet frequently accompanied 
by a specific term for the beard. 

Tregear interprets this as lau leaf and ulu head ; such also is the interpre- 
tation given by the islanders, the value of their etymologies having been 
mentioned in note 169. This is very simple, very obvious. Yet the form 
of lauulu used in Tahiti is rouru, and in that language ro does not mean 
leaf at all ; nor yet does it in the Viti dialect which employs ro ni vulu for 
ndrau ni ulu in the same sense. Furthermore, the vulu in the Viti Levu 
form is not ulu head but vulu hair, and ndrau itself means hair as well as 
leaf. Thus we have found that hair as "the leaves of the head " is not such 
a simple explanation as it appears. 

Having already established the nature and employment of determinant 
compounds, I recognize in this composite lauulu two words of one identical 
sense among others, lau hair and ulu hair; their employment together 
determines for the composite the sense of hair beyond any doubt. Cod- 
rington (Melanesian Languages, 73) seems to have felt some suspicion 
about the leaves of the head explanation, but, the determinant compound 
not having come within his knowledge, he was unable to carry on his note 
to a satisfactory issue. 

We shall now examine the interlacing of these two stems in the area of 
their greatest intricacy, Melanesia ; and shall rearrange the material in the 
order of a developmental series. It should be noted that such termina- 
tions as gi, ge, and i are merely local means to indicate a noun as absolute. 

fulu series. ulu series. 

vulu: Gog, Malo, Omba, Mosin, ulu: Deni, Malo, Sesake, Mota, 

Vuras, Eromanga. Maewo. 

wulu: Norbarbar. uli: Merlav. 

wolu: Ambrym. ilu: Epi, Arag. 

holu: Buka. ili: Ambrym, Volow, Motlav. 

weu: Duke of York, ul: Lo. 

houi: Motu. lu: Nifilole. 

vul: Marina, Lakon. kalu: New Georgia. 

vili: Makura, Bierian, Pak, Sasar, 

Alo Teqel. 
viji: Baki. 

The two series inosculate in vulu-ulu, vili-ili, thus showing that the 
intimacy of their interrelation is not fortuitous. The bare simplicity of 
Nifilole lu is repeated in the Ef ate lulu. The Eromanga novlimpu becomes 
clearer by indicating the several members of the composite, no-vli-mpu. 
Baki viji, so close to its neighbor Bierian vili, clearly establishes an l-t 
mutation; we find confirmation in sala (339) path Bugotu hatautu, and 
(l-nd) langi (308) sky Buka indengid. Finding, then, in Melanesia this form 



DATA AND NOTES. 269 

in t we may incline toward a warmer reception of Indonesian ^forms where 
the vowel is truer to stem than in Baki. Such are Tidore, Galela: hutu; 
Menado: uta; Sanguir: utan; Gah: uka; Matabello: ^ld; Batumerah: hud; 
Wahai : hue. Other Indonesian forms in which a resemblance appears are 
these: Mayapo: folo; Massaratty: olofolo; Cajeli: buloni; Baju: buli tokolo; 
Malagasy: volo; Bouton: buliva; Ahtiago: ulufuim; Tobo: ulvu; Salayer: 
uhu; Teluti: keulo; Morella: keiule; Liang: kaiola; Caimarian: keori. 

Rotuma leav and Tobo ulvu and Ahtiago ulufuim show interesting vari- 
eties of metathesis. Assigning position, we mark vulu 1234; then Rotuma 
represents 3412, Tobo 4312, and Ahtiago probably 4321, or less likely 2341. 

EFATE-MELANESIAN-VITI-POLYNESIAN-MALAY. 
213. 
banga, bangan i, fanga, to feed, to charge, to fill. 

Samoa, Tonga, Uvea: fafanga, to feed. Tonga: fafangai, id. 
Futuna, Nine, Paumotu : fangai, id. Tahiti: faaai, id. Rapa- 
nui: hangai, id. Hawaii: hanai, id. Maori: whangai, to feed, 
to nurture. Mangareva, Rarotonga: awg'a*, to feed, to nourish. 
Marquesas: hakai, to feed. 
Viti : vakania, to feed. 

Mota: vangan, to feed. Nggela, Bugotu: vanga, food. King: 
ivangon, to eat. Lambell: hangdn, id. Lamassa: angdn, id. 
Malagasy: mamahana, to feed, to load a g^n; ma causative and 
fahana. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is probably fangan. Yet the final n nowhere 
appears in Polynesia, while it is plainly to be seen in Efate, Mota and our 
three New Ireland languages. 

Dr. Macdonald's identification with Viti vakania at first seemed to me 
wholly superficial. On closer examination it is found to be worse; it 
is an attempt to wrest the record. The only place in which the word 
appears in the Viti dictionary is not in its alphabetic place, but as a note 
under the word kana to eat, of which it is clearly stated to be a causative. 
That our author had this entry before his eyes is shown by the fact that he 
cites the word as vdkani-a, just as Hazlewood has printed it. He forgets 
that he identified it correctly in 46. Since vd is the causative prefix and 
kana means to eat there can be not the remotest relation with the fangan 
stem. The discussion of these two Viti stems will be found under 214 
and 46 respectively. 

In Polynesia generally the word is transitive, yet there are uses in which 
evidence appears of the intransitive as well. Regarding the primary sense 
of the word as transitive, we find in its use as signifying the charging of a 
gun or the filling of a pipe in Efate no great deviation from an elemental 
signification of putting something into the mouth. 

214. 
baka, faka, causative prefix. 

Tonga, Paumotu, Nine, Futuna, Uvea, Fakaafo, Fotuna, Sikayana, 
Aniwa: faka. Marquesas, Paumotu, Nukuoro, Rapanui, 

Tongarewa: haka. Maori: whaka. Samoa: fa' a. Tahiti, 



270 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Uvea, Tonga : faa. Tahiti, Hawaii, Marquesas, Nukuoro : haa. 
Moriori: hoko. Hawaii: hoo. Paumotu: fa. Hawaii: ha. 
Maori: wha. Hawaii: ho. Rarotonga, Mangareva, Buka- 
buka: oka. Mangareva: anga. Rapanui, Paumotu: a. 

Viti: vaka, va. Rotuma: faka, fak, a. 

Sesake, Kiriwina, Santo, Nguna: Tjaka. Malo: vaca. Marina: 
Nggela, Belaga, Sinaugoro, Omba, Maewo, Mota : vaga. Fagani: 
faga. TangoanSanto: i/zafea. Keapara : T;a/za. Ulawa,Wango, 
Saa, Ugi: /jo'o. Sesake, Nguna : ^afea. Bierian : fca^a. Sesake, 
Marina, Arag, Merlav, Gog, Lakon, Mota, Motlav, Volow, Lo, 
Deni, Vaturanga, Nggela, Bugotu, Motu, Pak, Leon, Vuras, 
Mosin, Baki, Kabadi, Hula, Nguna: va. Nifilole, Duke of 
York, Raluana, Kabakada, Matupit, Baravon : wa. Aneityum : 
ua. Nggao: fa. Roro, Pokau: ha. Mekeo, Panaieti, Nguna: 
pa. Motu, Pala: ha. Nengone, Lifu, Motu, Panaieti, Dobu: a. 
Motlav, Pak, Leon : w. Vuras: w. Norbarbar, Alo Teqel: t/-. 
Savo : au. New Britain : wara. Malekula Pangkumu : vaha. 

Sulu: viak, maka. Tagalog, Bicol: mag, pag. 

faka: Futuna, Efate, Tonga, Pau- fa: Uvea, Nggao, Paumotu, Efat^. 

motu. Uvea, Rotuma, Samoa. faa (fa) : Tonga. 

faga: Fagani. va: Viti, Sesake, etc. 

faa: Tahiti, Uvea. wha: Maori. 

fak: Rotuma. ba: Efate. 

vaka: Nguna, Viti, Sesake, Malo, ve: Motlav, Pak, Leon. 

Santo. vi: Vuras. 

vaga: Marina, Maewo.Omba, Mota, v — : Norbarbar, Alo Teqel. 

Nggela, Belaga. b — : Efate. 

vaha: Malekula Pangkumu. f — : Efate. 

baka: Efate, Bierian. pa: Nguna. 

paka: Nguna, Sesake. ha: Hawaii. 

whaka: Maori. ho: Hawaii. 

haka: Marquesas, Paumotu, Nuku- wa: Nifilole, Duke of York, Raluana, 

oro, Tongarewa. Kabakada, Matupit, Baravon. 

thaka: Tangoan Santo. ua: Aneityum. 

haa: Hawaii, Ulawa, Tahiti, Marque- a: Rotuma, Nengone, Lifu, Pau- 

sas, Wango, Saa, Ugi, Nukuoro. motu. 

hoko: Moriori. au: Savo. 

hoo: Hawaii. wara: New Britain. 
aka: Rarotonga, Mangareva, Bukabuka. 
anga: Mangareva. 

It is manifest that two forms are here involved and that the sense is 
identical. I have given close attention to the examination of those lan- 
guages in which the two forms are in use simultaneously, and except for 
one slight discrimination I have failed to discover any principle in the selec- 
tion of the form which shall be used. It is not euphonic, for the long form 
is used before consonants as well as before vowels and the same is equally 
true of the short form. The only discrimination which I have satisfied 
myself to exist consistently is in Uvea, where. /ofeo is causative and fa {faa) 
is used of resemblance. 



DATA AND NOTES. 



271 



The stems are faka and fa. Rotuma fak is the only vestige of the transi- 
tion form. 

To show the devolution I have rearranged the forms in two lists. We 
need comment on but few facts. The forms in o seem to have developed 
sporadically and, of course, independently in Hawaii at the extreme north- 
ern limit of the Tongafiti swarm and in Moriori at the extreme south and 
apparently earlier than the Tongafiti movement. Not a vestige of the o 
has been retained along the migration tracks. In Savo au and New Britain 
wara we find appai'ently irreducible forms, possibly heterogenetic. 

215- 

bia, bisa, fia, fisa, how many. 
In the same sense — 

Tonga, Nine: fiha. Samoa, Futuna, Uvea, Nukuoro, Aniwa, 

Nuguria, Sikayana: fia. Maori, Moiki, Tahiti, Marquesas, 
Mangareva, Rapanui, Paumotu: hia. Mangaia: ia (eia). 

Viti: vitha. 

Mota, Maewo: visa. Sesake: pisa. Vaturanga: ngisa. Pala: 
hise. Wango: siha. Arag, Ambrym: viha. Nggao: ngiha. 
Baravon: aiuia. Moanus: tje, td tjS. 

Malay: hia, what. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is fiha. 

Dr. Macdonald disposes of the matter with the declaration "the final 
part of bia and his a, namely a or sa, is the interrogative pronoun." Refer- 
ence to these several words in their proper places in the dictionary confirms 
his statement — so far as relates to Efate. He offers no explanation for the 
former element of such a composite, and I have none to suggest. But: 



Language. 


How many. 


What. 


Language. 


How many. 


What. 


Mota 

Maewo 

Sesake 

Vaturanga.. . 


visa 
visa 
pisa 
ngisa 


sava 

sava 

sa 

na hua 


Wango 

Arag 

Ambrym. . . . 
Nggao 


siha 
viha 
viha 
ngiha 


e taha 

hava, havanau 

ha 

na no 



It is tantalizingly close, yet with such instances as Vaturanga and Nggao 
we are debarred from accepting the explanation until we know enough of 
the ^-element to enable us to account for the word as a whole. 

216. 

matua, to be old, mature, large, great, wise. 

Maori, Manahiki, Tongarewa: matua, parent. Rarotonga, Buka- 
buka: metua, id. Samoa: matua, parent, mature, elder. 
Tonga: matua, parents, old people; motua, old, mature, ripe. 
Futuna: matua, old, parents, mature, ripe. Niue: matua, 
parent; motua, old. Uvea: matua, parents, old, mature. 

Rapanui: matua tamaroa, father; matua tamaahine, mother. 
Tahiti : -mattia, old ; mitua, vietia, parent. Marquesas : motua, 
father. Mangareva: motua, father; -matua, old. Nuguria, 



272 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Sikayana: matua, old. Aniwa: tomatua, to he able. Hawaii, 
Paumotu: ma^wa, parent, old, mature. 'Botuna: mahtim, old. 
Viti: matua, ripe, mature. 

Nggela: fewfeita, ancestors. Laur: imdtuk, ripe. Lambell: makos, 
id. Lamassa: imakos, id. Bierian: matua, old; tamatua, old 
man. Tanna : matu, ripe. Santo : metua, ripe. Mota : matu^, 
ripe, full-grown. Aneityum : meto, ripe. Pala : matua, uncle. 
Malagasy: matoa, eldest son or daughter. Malay: mantuwah, a 
parent-in-law; mentua, mother. Macassar: matowang,iatheT- 
in-laAV. 
Three senses are involved herein, to be old, to be ripe, parent. I should 
like to see my way to the idea that age is the central idea, but the mate- 
rial does not warrant this conclusion — or, in fact, any. The three senses 
(assuming the mature of the dictionaries to cover ripe) appear concurrently 
in Tonga, Uvea, Futuna, Hawaii, Paumotu. In Samoa matua does not 
mean ripe and that language is not included in this category. Concurrence 
of the two senses old and parent obtains in Samoa, Nine, Tahiti, Mangareva. 
Differentiated forms (matua, motua) are found in Tonga, Nine, Mangareva ; 
and in Tahiti matua, mitua, and metua. In Tonga and Niue motua is old 
and matua is parent, which is its sole signification in Maori, Manahiki, and 
Tongarewa. But in Tahiti and Mangareva the usage is opposite. In the 
Marquesas motua is the only form and its only sense is father. 

In our Melanesian area Nggela kukua ancestors is included only as sug- 
gesting a partial resemblance. Bfate is the only language which gives the 
stem an extended range of meaning. Bierian shares with it the common 
Polynesian signification of old. All the other forms have the sole meaning 
of ripe and the languages employ other words for age and parent. 

217. 
tema na, tama na, father. 
In the same sense — 

Samoa, Fakaafo: tama. Aniwa: tama. Tonga, Uvea: tamai. 
Futuna, Sikayana, Fotuna, Nuguria, Nukuoro: tamana. 

Viti: tama, father. 

Pala, New Britain : tama. Redscar Bay (N.G.) : tamaa. Aneityum : 
etm,a. Eromanga: temi. Mota: tamai. Nifilole: tum,ai. 
Mota, Duke of York, Buka, Baravon, Nggela, Laur, King, 
Sesake, Malo, Bierian, Tangoan Santo, Arag,Vaturanga,Bugotu, 
Motu, Sinaugoro, Rubi, Suau, Sariba, Tubetube, Panaieti, 
Misima, Nada, Murua, Kiriwina, Dobu, Mukawa, Kubiri, Raqa, 
Kiviri: tama. Oiun: tame. Tanna: timi(n). Santo: tima. 
Pokau, Doura : kama. Ulawa, Wango, Uni : 'ama. Fagani : 
wama. Saa, Bululaha, Wagawaga, Mekeo, Hula, Keapara, 
Galoma, Tavara, Awalama, Taupota,Wedau : ama. Roro : hama. 
Nggao, Lo : ma. Mota, Omba, Gog, Alite, New Georgia, Koita, 
Motu : mama. Boniki, Galavi : mamai. Merlav, Lakon, Pak, 
Sasar, Vuras, Mosin, Alo Teqel, MotIav,Volow,Norbarbar: mam. 
Malekula, Tangoan Santo : tata. Nengone : chacha. Baki : ka- 
rama. Panaieti, Misima : warn. Tagula : rama. Raqa: dorfa. 



DATA AND NOTES. 273 

Salayer, Liang, L^riko, Saparua, Awaiya, Caimarian, Wahai, Teor: 
ama. Morella : a'ma. Cajeli : a'mam. Ahtiago : amdi. Teluti : 
amaeolo. Amblaw: amao. Bouton: amana. Menado: iama. 
Sanguir : yaman. Tobo : jaman. Bolanghitam : kiamat. Gah : 
mama. Mysot: mam. Mayapo: ndma. Massaratty: ndama. 

In the Polynesian this is distinguished from tdma child by the accent 
tamd or by the addition of a final syllable which automatically secures the 
same incidence of the accent, tamdi, tamdna. Diacritical marks have been 
but sparingly used in our Melanesian vocabularies and for that reason we 
lack a sure guide as to the accenting of the western affiliates. We find but 
the cases of New Britain, and Pala inwhich the accent is printed, and Mota, 
Nifilole, Redscar Bay, and Aneityum in which it is inferential. In not one 
of these languages have we any evidence of the use of tdma child, therefore 
the accent is not a differential in their own material, but has carried its 
ictus from the source whence the tamd father has been borrowed. 

We shall first examine the languages which retain the t-m consonant 
skeleton. There is a long series in which the two vowels remain as in 
Polynesian ; they are therefore identical words except that the accent may 
vary, and on that point we are without information. The final a is almost 
wholly permanent, not only in the t-m series but in the m series which will 
come up for our later consideration. The solitary exceptions are Tanna 
timi{n) and Eromanga temi. The former a in this case becomes e in Ero- 
manga and i in Tanna. The i-mutation also appears in Santo tima. In 
Nifilole we find u in tumai. 

Our next variant of tamd involves frontal abrasion affecting the t. This 
we find in two discrete areas in the Solomons, respectively, north and south 
of Malanta and separated by an area of greater degradation. With the 
ama of this abraded type I include Fagani wama. 

This middle type gives us a suite of occurrences of the transition form 
by which we arrive at forms in which not only the initial t but the vowel a 
thus become initial have been subjected to frontal abrasion. The simplest 
form is ma in Nggao and Lo. By reduplication of ma we may more logically 
account for mama than by attempting to establish a t-m mutation . By final 
abrasion of mama we arrive at mam, a form very widespread in the Banks 
Group, the northern subdivision of the New Hebrides. 

Few forms lie outside this chain. Aneityum etman is only superficially 
irregular, for by punctuating apart its formative elements we find in 
e-tma-n our tama theme with loss of the former vowel, which is character- 
istic of many of the Polynesian homogenies in that language. The tata of 
Malekula and Tangoan Santo and the chacha of Nengone appear to be the 
result of a terminal abrasion involving the final syllable and then a redup- 
lication. There is a priori no reason why such a course should not have 
been followed by the former syllable as well as the later; we must note, 
however, that we find no evidence such as transition forms would afford in 
support thereof. If Baki karama stems with the ma type of tamd it 
involves a component kara as to which we lack information. 

The Indonesian homogenetic forms are most largely of the transitional 
ama type, only Tobo jaman suggesting a tama possibility and in our igno- 
rance of the source of this record jaman may be but a variant transcription 



274 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

of Sanguir yaman. The still more dilapidated forms of ma, mama, and 
mam also appear. 

From the Micronesian Pacific we record Gilbert Islands tdma father, and 
in passing note that this archipelago has borrowed much from Samoa and 
in somewhat recent times ; and Ponape jam father. 

EFATE-VITI-POLYNESIAN-MALAY-SEMITIC. 
2i8. 

bwaka, a fence of stone or wood made for protection or fortification in war. 

Samoa, Tonga, Nine, Tahiti, Marquesas, Moriori : pa, a wall, fence, 
hedge. Maori: pa, a barricade, an obstruction, a fort, a 
stockade. Paumotu: pa, a rampart, bulwark. Rapanui: 
pa, a wall, to inclose. Hawaii, Mangareva : pa, a wall and its 
inclosure. Rarotonga: pa, an inclosure. Fotuna: pa, 

kaupa, a fence. Samoa : 'aupd, a wall, fence, hedge, bulwark. 

Viti : mba, a fish fence ; mbai, a fence around a garden or a town, but 
not around a house. 

Malo: baba, a fence. Tanna: kaupa, id. Eromanga: nim-pa-t, id. 
Mabuiag: pa (plural pal), a fence for a garden, a stockade. 

Malay: pagar, a fence, a railing; palang, a bar, a piece of wood laid 
crosswise in obstruction. Malagasy: bako, a pinfold; bamba, 
a wall or fence in fortification. 

Hebrew : ma'dkeh, a parapet (surrounding a flat roof) to hinder one 
from falling off; 'akah, to hold back, to hinder, to impede. 

Our Polynesian, Viti, and Melanesian identifications deal only with a 
simple pa stem which exhibits but the slight normal />- variations. Bfate 
bwaka involves a new element which we are unable to identify, and the 
same is true of the Indonesian. 

219. 

bakauti, buti, to make an end, to finish. 

Nine: oti, all, entirely; fakaoti, together, to destroy utterly, to make 
a clean sweep. Maori: oti, finished, ended. Tahiti: oti, to 
be done, finished. Mangareva : oti, the end, finished, all over. 
Rarotonga : oti, finished. Paumotu : fakaoti, to finish, to con- 
clude. Nukuoro: hakaoti, to end, to finish. Moriori: hokoti, 
to cause to cease. Nuguria: hiwti, to finish. Sikayana: 
oti, all, to finish. Samoa: talafa'aoti, to tell all. Tonga: 
oji, to be finished, to be done, all gone. Fotuna : oji, all, the 
whole. Uvea: fakaosi, to finish. 

Viti: otia, vakaotia, to finish, to bring to an end, to complete, to 
perfect; oti, finished, done, destroyed, utterly ruined. 

Aneityum: oti, gone, done, finished. 

Malagasy: cf. oty, picked off, gathered (of fruits), weaned. 

Hebrew : kaseh, an end ; kasah, to finish. 

In Efate buti I find an instance of the most degraded faka-fa stem, 
b-uti, paralleled by the similar v — shown in 2 14. 

The identifications here offered are so patent that they need not detain us. 



DATA AND NOTES. 275 

A particular interest of an ethnographic nature will attend our exami- 
nation of the areas in which this homogeneity is found traceable. Oti 
seems to be a word of the Tongafiti swarm. It is found at the remotest 
beaches upon which broke that wave of migration. In the Nuclear Pacific 
we find it in Samoa, Tonga, Nukuoro, Uvea, Viti, and Nine. In Samoa it 
has found a lodgment in but the one word cited. In the islands of the 
Western Verge we find it in Sikayana and Fotuna. In Melanesia it appears 
only in Efat6 and Aneityum. Compare with this any of these records 
showing a word of the Proto-Samoan baggage ; Melanesia is speckled with 
its occurrences. In this case we are at no loss to account for the Tongafiti 
word in Nuclear Polynesia, for we know that to have been a halting-place 
for the later swarm in the permanent home of the former. We know, too, 
that Samoa by a mighty effort cast off the invaders, and we are therefore 
not surprised to find so slight a remnant of the enemy's speech. The 
presence of this Tongafiti word in two of the islands of the Western Verge 
and in two of the New Hebrides calls for attention. The absence of Tonga- 
fiti homogenies in Melanesia indicates for that migration a different course 
in general, but such instances as this go to show that, while our conclusion 
is in the main true, now and then a small squadron may have found its 
way down the ancient track, or that when the second swarm was expelled 
from Nuclear Polynesia some of its fleets may have gone westward to 
homes where the chances of settlement were but slight. 

220. 

balo-ni, bano-li, balo-si, bllo-si, bulo-si, bulu-ngi, bulu-ni, bunu-li, to wash 
anything, to wash by rubbing. Cf. bafano 49. 

Samoa : fufulu, fulua, to rub, to wash, to wipe; fulunga, the rubbing 
of a thing. Nukuoro : fufulu, fulua, to wash. Tonga, Futuna, 
Uvea: fufulu, to wash, to cleanse. Fotuna: no-furuna, to 
wipe. 

Viti: vuluvulu, to wash the hands. 

Malay: basuk, to wash. Malagasy: uza, id. 

Arabic : masa, maus', to wash, to rub with the hands. 

These Efate forms are in a snarl which needs disentangling before we can 
give them precise study. We shall first examine the forms which exhibit 
the skeleton b-l-n. These are baloni, buluni, each being accompanied by 
a metathetic form, banoli and bunuli respectively. With the b-l-n skeleton 
I must include the slightly variant bulungi. 

Another skeleton, b-l-s, occurs in balosi, bilosi, bulosi. 

Dr. Macdonald's crossing of reference to bafano can only apply to the 
forms which I have preferred to regard as metathetic. If he regards them 
as principal, his identification with fufuluhas no standing; and if he regards 
baloni as principal, his reference to bafano is irrelevant. 

But neither b-l-n forms nor b-l-s forms can be properly identified with 
the fulu stem of Nuclear Polynesia, for that is an open stem. Yet in 
Fotuna no-furuna we find an n as to which we have no explanation in the 
jejunity of our only account of the grammar of that speech. It may be a 
formative suffix, even as we know the no to be a formative prefix. It may 
be the sole Polynesian survival of a fulun stem. It may be grafted upon 



276 THE POl-YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

the open stem by attraction from a New Hebridean neighbor. If fulun be 
the Proto-Samoan stem its affiHates will be the b-l-n forms of Efat^. To 
associate therewith the b-l-s forms entails an n-s mutation of which we 
can not find a single trace in this material. 

The Malay and the Semitic identifications do not come up for consider- 
ation at all. 

221. 

bwoa, nabwo, tamo, to emit odor; bwon, odor. Cf. 139. 

Samoa: poa, a yam having a fragrant odor; poapod, fishy smelling; 
fa'apoa, to feed young children with fish. Futuna : poa, popoa, 
to smell fishy; poa tai, odor of the sea. Tonga : boa, the name 
of a species of yam, the smell of fish ; fakaboa, to scent anything 
with fish, to smell of fish; tauboa, to scent the water with fish 
to catch others. 

Viti : mboi, to emit an odor. 

Malay: bua, odor. Malagasy: fufuna, id. 

Arabic : fdha, fdh'a, to emit odor. 

222. 
but i, buti, futi, to pluck (as a fowl), to pluck out or up (as weeds) ; mafuti, 
to be plucked. 

Samoa : futi, to pluck feathers or hair, to pull up weeds ; fufuti, to 
haul in the fishing line. Futuna : futi, to pull out feathers or 
hair; futitaula, to raise the anchor. Niue: futi, to draw up 
(as a fish on a line), to hoist (as a flag), to pluck (as a hair). 
Nukuoro : futi, to pick, to pluck. Sikayana : ufuti, to pull or 
haul. Tonga : fufuji, to pull, to stretch out ; fuji, to pull, to 
pluck, to deplume. Maori : huti, huhuti, to hoist, to pull up 
out of the ground ; huti-ika, to pull up a fish. Tahiti : huti, 
to pull or draw up a fishing line, to hoist a flag; huhuti, to pluck 
feathers, hair, grass. Marquesas : huhuti, to pull one another 
by the hair; hutihuti, to pull out the feathers of a bird, to pull 
the hair. Mangareva: huhuti, to pull up as by the roots; 
hutihuti, to pull up herbs, to pull out feathers ; uhuti, to pull up 
by the roots. Paumotu : hutihuti, to denude the body of hair. 
Rapanui : huhuti, to weed ; hutihuti, to pluck feathers. Hawaii : 
huki, to draw, to pull ; uhuki, to pull up as grass or weeds. 

Viti: vutia, to pluck feathers or hair, to pull up grass or weeds. 

Mota : cf . pit, to take up or off with the tips of the fingers, to pick, 
to pluck. 

Malay: bantun, to pluck, pull out. 

Arabic : namasa, to pluck out, as hairs. 

Because of its signification I collate Mota pit, yet with some hesitation 
because of the fact that in the study of some 150 Mota words homogenetic 
with Samoa this is the only instance of the f-p mutation. This objection 
rests upon this case rather than the broader knowledge of consonant move- 
ments in these languages, for f-p is a sufficiently well-established mutation 
in the true Polynesian and appears frequently in the Melanesian material 
here collated. 



DATA AND NOTES. 277 

The Malay proposed in identification assumes without confirmation a 
stem of three consonants. The Arabic shows not the sUghtest resemblance 
save in meaning. 

223. 

fis i, fisi, fifis i, fif 1, to bind around or about, to twine around or twist; 
fifi, to twine or go around, a fillet. 

Samoa : fisi, to entwine, as a vine around a stick ; fa' a fisi, to entwine, 
to coil; fifi, the small intestines; afi, to do up in a bundle. 
Tonga : fihi, thick, bushy, entangled ; fihifihi, curled in the grain, 
linked one into another, inextricable ; fifihi, one who in wrestling 
is dexterous with his limbs locking the limbs of his antagonist; 
fi, to plait, to twist, to curl; fifii, to enclose fish in plaited 
coconut leaf. Nuguria : afii, to wrap up. Futuna : fifi, a 
bundle of cooked fish. Nine : fi-ika, a bunch of fish. Tahiti : 
fifi, entangled; faafifi, to entangle. Maori: whiwhi, twisted 
together; whakawhiwhi, to wind around; whiwhiwhi, the fat 
covering the intestines. Hawaii: hihi, the twining of vines; 
hoohihia, to entangle. 

Viti: vivi, to roll up or around, to coil around. 

Mota : viv, vivis, to wind around, to bind arovmd and around. 

Malay: pusing, to turn around, to twist. Malagasy: fihina, grasp, 
seizure, fihitra, a clutch, a grasp. 

Hebrew : habas', to bind, to bind on, to bind about. 

In'^this group we are dealing with a stem fis, which may be expanded to 
fisi and which may be abraded to fi; see note 243. 

In Polynesia we find only fisi and fi, in Viti only fi, in Efat6 all three 
forms, and in Mota only fi and fis. 

The Indonesian suggestions involve the difficulty of a third radical con- 
sonant which has left no vestige in our area; see also note 245. 

The Hebrew likewise entails a third consonant in the root, differing from 
the Indonesian in being applied frontally. 

224. 

kamut i/ngamut i, kami, to take, to grasp with the fingers, to nip, to nip 

or cut with scissors ; kam, native tongs (a split stick for grasping 

hot oven stones and lifting them) ; kamkam, scissors. 
Tonga : kamu, to cut off anything round. Futuna : kamu, to cut, 

to shorten. Samoa: 'amu, to cut off, as part of a beam. 

Hawaii : amu, to shear or shave the hair from the head, to trim 

the hair. 
Viti : nggamu, pincers, vise ; nggamuta, to take hold of or hold with 

pincers or between the teeth. 
Malay: cubit, chubit, to nip, to pinch. Java : jwwit, id. Malay: 

angkub, tongs, nippers. 
Hebrew : kamas, to squeeze together, to take with the hand ; kamat, 

to hold fast with the hand, to seize firmly; kafas, to contract, 

to shut (as the mouth) ; kabas, to take or grasp with the hands. 

Arabic : kabasa, to take with the tips of the fingers ; kabas' a, to 

grasp with the hand. 



278 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is manifestly kamut, 3'^et the material is so scanty 
in Nuclear Polynesia that we can establish it only from Viti, and possibly 
from Hawaii amuku to cut short, which, however, Andrews associates with 
muku to cut, without pointing out or explaining the difficulties which such 
derivation entails. 

225. 
kar i, ngar i, karu-ti, ngaru-ti, to scratch; karo i, ngaro i, to scratch, to 
scrape, to shave, to seize; tangaru, to seize, to grasp. 
Samoa : 'Hi, a rasp, a file, a saw. Tonga : kili, a saw ; kilifakamata, a 
file ; kiliji, to saw. Futuna : kiliti, to file ; kili, a rasp, a file. 
Uvea: kili, id; kilisi, to file. Nine: kili, a file, a saw. 
Viti: kari, to scrape. 

Melanesian: all meaning to scratch or scrape — Galavi: giri, lagiri. 
Nada: qiri. Raqa: kairi. Wedau: giai. Mukawa: giagiai. 
Kiriwina : kuriqari. Panaieti : kurikuri. Kubiri, Kiviri : gagara. 
Oiun: kakakara. Motu: hekagalo. Taupota: karakaroi. 
Wedau: kakaroi. Boniki: kelologi. Mota, Nggela: karu. 
Bugotu: g'ag'aru. Wango: karohi. Malo: garasi. 
Malay: garis, to scratch, to score; garut, to scratch, to scrape, to 

claw; gar ok, to scrape. Java: garit, to scratch, to score. 
Arabic: garra, to drag, to snatch, to sweep, to seize. Hebrew: 
garar, to scrape, to sweep; gara', to scratch, to scrape. 
Dr. Macdonald has amassed a number of similar forms, there are many 
more than these in his dictionary, and we shall have to disentangle them. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is kilit, and by a normal Polynesian mutation 
this becomes kilis in Uvea. This permits us to identify karuii and ngaruti. 
Thence we may pass to karo and ngaro, kar and ngar, so long as they carry 
the meaning to scratch, to scrape. Here we find the Viti kari to fit into 
the scheme ; its form shows that it was not derived from the neighboring 
Polynesian kili, but came from the stem by way of Efat6. The Indonesian 
forms are in closer accord with Ef at6 and Viti than with the Nuclear Poly- 
nesia and give the impression of an earlier type. 

It will be observed in the Efat6 that while the scratch sense runs through 
all the forms the grasp sense is absent from those which exhibit the 
radical t. We may, therefore, judge that there are two stems interlaced, 
karui-karo-kar to scratch, and karo-kar to grasp, and that the reduction 
forms of karut have become involved with the karo-kar forms of the other 
stem. This will remove the Arabic identification entirely from considera- 
tion and will leave to the Hebrew but a partial resemblance. 

226. 
kau, a collection, bunch, herd. 

Tonga : kau, plural sign. Futuna : kau, a multitude, a troop. Niu€ : 
kau, a troop, a company. Uvea: kau, a company, herd. 
Mangareva : kou, a multitude (kouika, a shoal of fish). Samoa : 
'au, a troop, a gang, a bunch, a cluster. Tahiti, Hawaii : au, 
collective plural. 
Viti : kau, a bunch. 
Malay: kawan, a herd, a troop. 
Arabic : gam', gama'a, a collection. 



DATA AND NOTES. 279 

In view of the fact that kau retains its place in Nuclear Polynesia and 
has scantily entered the Tongafiti languages it will be interesting to cite 
Tregear's note (Maori Comparative Dictionary s.v. tekau) : 

It is evident that there was an original Polynesian word kau, a troop of persons, a 
cluster of things, etc. The Tongan kauvaka, a crew; kaugane, fellow- workmen; kau- 
mea, a companion; the Samoan'aw, a bunch of bananas; a troop of warriors; 'aufale, 
women living together in a house; the Tahitian auono, a large fleet or company of 
travelers; autahua, a company of priests; the Mangaian kaunuku, in groups, etc., all 
point to a word signifying collection, assemblage. 

I can not see that the Arabic has aught to do with it. 

227. 
kinit i, nginit i, ngunut i, to nip with the fingers ; nakini na, fingers (nippers), 
toes. Cf. 57. 
Tonga : kini, to strike, to cut the hair short, to let blood ; kiniji, to 
strike with anything light, to hit with a whip. Futuna : kini, 
kikini, to beat, to strike, to whip. Niue : kini, to beat down (as 
bushes) . Uvea : kini, to whip. Maori : kini, to nip, to pinch. 
Samoa: 'ini, to take hold of with the nails, to pinch, to pull up 
small weeds. Hawaii : iniki, to pinch with thumb and finger. 
Viti: kinita, to nip, to pinch between finger and thumb. 
Mota : gin, ginit, to nip, to pinch. Malekula Pangkumu : kinji, id. 
Malay: gantas, to break off, to nip off, to snap off. 
Arabic: karasa, to nip with the fingers, to pinch, to snip off. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is kinit. 

The distribution of this word is striking. The nipping sense is found in 
Mota, Malekula, Efate, Viti and Samoa, thence far north to Hawaii, far 
south to New Zealand; yet in Tonga, Futuna, Niue and Uvea we find 
the word completely devoid of this sense and charged with a wholly different 
meaning which nowhere else appears. I find it quite inexplicable. 
The Semitic has no relation other than that of sense. 

228. 
lua, le, lai, to vomit, to put out the tongue (or anything), to flow out. 

Samoa: lua'i, to spit out; lultm, to be sick, to vomit, to puke. 
Tonga : lua, lulua, to vomit, to disgorge ; luaki, to be sick with ; 
jakalua, to nauseate. Futuna : lulua, luaki, to vomit ; fakalulua, 
to nauseate. Niue: luu, to vomit; fakalua, id.; fakalue, to 
spew out. Uvea: lua, to vomit. Fotuna: noh-lua, id. 
Rapanui: rua, seasick, to vomit. Maori, Rarotonga, Nukuoro: 
ruaki, to vomit. Paumotu : ruaki, to vomit, to eructate, to belch. 
Tahiti: ruai, to vomit. Mangareva: aruai, akaruta, id. 
Hawaii: Itiai, id. Marquesas: ud, akaruta, id. 
Viti : lu, to run or leak out ; lua, to vomit ; loloa, qualmish, seasick. 
Mota: lua, to spew. Malo: hia, id. Santo: lulua, id. Baki: 
mjuluo, id. Malekula: ru, id. Aneityum: a-lo, id; aluo, 
aluun, to put out the tongue. 
Malay: luivat, luat, to vomit; luwar, luar, out, away; luwari, luwar- 
kan, to put out, to expel. Malagasy: lua, to vomit; mandua, 
to vomit ; luatra, over and above, taken up, put out ; manduatra, 
to take out or up. 
Arabic : t'a't, ta'a, tai'at, t'a'at, to vomit. 



280 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is lua. The Mangarevan akaruta is quite 
singular, and, while not succeeding in identifying its primitive ruta, I can 
not admit it as a lua derivative. The same word akaruta cited by Tregear 
from the Marquesas is not found in Bishop Dordillon's dictionary. 

The le and lai of Efate are profoundly degenerate forms if they be really 
of the lua stem. The most degenerate form in Melanesia is the ru of Male- 
kula and the ro as a component of Aneityum a-lo. The discovery of these 
two forms in the sense to vomit gives a certain probability to the Viti lu 
in a sense which, while different, is not wholly irreconcilable with this stem. 
The Efate sense "to put out the tongue (or anything) " — and I am free to 
acknowledge that I can not imagine what Dr. Macdonald means within the 
parentheses — finds support in Aneityum aluo > and aluun, to put out the 
tongue, to thrust out the tongue, respectively. But the sense is only 
remotely, if at all, related to the stem sense of lua. 

The Indonesian carries lua identifications with much extraneous matter. 
The value of the Semitic identification wholly fails to appear. 

229. 
ma i, to chew (softening food for an infant) . 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Tahiti, Rapanui, Marquesas : mama, to chew. 
Niue: mama, a mouthful, that which is chewed. Hawaii: 
mama, to chew with a view to spit out of the mouth. Man- 
gareva : mama, to chew, to bruise with the teeth. Nukuoro : 
manga, to chew. Uvea : maanga, a morsel. 
Viti : mama, to chew, used chiefly of the kava root. 
Aneityum : a-mai, to chew (kava or any bark) . 
Malay: mamah, to chew. 

Arabic: ma"ma"a, to chew meat, but not wholly. 

230. 
manga, maka, to open out, to gape, to wonder, to speak, to open the jaws ; 
mangamanga, to gape often and rapidly, to pant, manga, a 
part of the names of places, as gorges and valleys, and especially 
of the abysses of Hades below Bokas. 
Samoa : manga, a branch of anything forked, as a tree, river, road 
or fishhook; mangamanga, branched, forked; fa'amanga, to open 
the mouth, to gape; fa'amangai, to set astride. Tonga : manga, 
a branch of a tree, road, fishhook, stream, open, forked, spread- 
ing; mangamanga, to branch off, to spread open; mamanga, to 
stride, to extend the legs; fakamanga, to open, to gape; faka- 
mangamanga, to barb, to jag, to make forked. Futuna : manga, 
a branch, a fork ; fakamanga, to have the legs spread out. Niue : 
manga, forked ; mangaua, cloven ; fakamanga, to open the mouth, 
to gape; fakamamanga, to straddle, to open the mouth, to 
spread out, to extend. Maori: manga, the branch of a tree 
or a river. Mangareva : manga, the branch of a tree, forked, 
cloven. Paumotu: manga, a branch, a division. Rapanui: 
mangamanga, a branch ; mangamanga rima, a finger. Hawaii : 
mana, a branch, a limb, to branch out, to be divided. Mar- 
quesas : mana, a branch, as of a river. Tahiti : maa, cloven, 
divided; amaa, the branch of a tree. 



DATA AND NOTES. 281 

Viti: manga, pudendum muliebre. 

Mota: manga, an opening with lips, mouth, to open, to gape. 

Malay : manga, open ; mangah, to pant, to palpitate ; nganga, to gape. 

Ethiopia -.naka'a, to gape, to yawn, to be rent, parted, sundered ;nka'at, 

an opening, gap, fissure. Arabic: naka'a, to rend asunder. 

This forms an excellent and consistent series from Polynesia to Indonesia. 

The Semitic identifications proposed by our author have not the least 

connection with the Polynesian m-ng root. 

231. 
mina, pleasant, nice. 

Samoa ; momona, fat, rich (of pigeons and fish) . Tonga : momona, 
fat (as shellfish). Futuna: momona, flesh of sea food. Maori: 
momona, fat, rich, fertile. Hawaii: mona, fat, rich, fertile, 
round, plump, the fat of an animal. Tahiti: mona, momona, 
sweet, delicious. Marquesas : tnomona, delicious, good to taste, 
fat part of an animal. Mangareva: inomona, grease, fat. 
Paumotu: momona, odor, savor. 
Viti: mona, brains. 

Malagasy: monamonany, fat, plump, of a child or young animal. 
Arabic: 'anik', pleasant, nice. 
The Marquesas combines the two significations of fat meat and deli- 
cious. The meat sense runs through Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Maori, Hawaii, 
Mangareva. In 142 we have seen a word beginning in oil and ending in 
brains; the Viti attains the same end from an equally greasy beginning. 
The Paumotu momona has undergone a particular and independent special- 
ization. Taking a fresh start from the Marquesas and examining the sense 
of delicious we find that to be the only sense in Tahiti and Efate ; possibly 
it may be inferred in the rich of Samoa, Maori and Hawaii. 
Again Dr. Macdonald's Semitic is not even a resemblance. 

232. 
mitei, breadfruit fermented and preserved. Cf. mutrei 6. 

Samoa : mast, fermented breadfruit ; matt, stale (of water, coconuts, 
kava) . Futuna : masi, breadfruit or bananas fermented ; matt, 
wilted and yellow, of leaves of tobacco and taro. Nukuoro : 
masi, bad-smelling. Tonga: mahi, sour, acid; maji, sour, 
decayed, as the nut when kept too long. Tahiti : mahi, bread- 
fruit fermented. Mangareva : cf . mahimahi, cooked food kept 
until the next day to make it better. 
Viti : masimasia, the breadfruit in a certain state. 
Malay: masin, salt. Malagasy: masimasina, saltish. 
Arabic: masi', salt (of water). 
The alternative form mutrei I have (note 6) carried out to its Viti con- 
gener mandrai. 

This form mitei we may adopt as related to the Polynesian masi, as set 
forth above. I have noted the Polynesian mati as being nearer mitei 
in form, but it clearly has no connection in sense. Mati carries the impli- 
cation of being unfit to eat, and no Polynesian would think so ill of his masi, 
even though the odor is overpowering to Europeans and suggests the reflec- 
tion that stale would be but a weak description. I am not quite confident 



282 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

enough of the Nukuoro vocabulary to accept bad-smelling as the definition 
of mast, though it is fact none the less. 

There is no physical fact in the fermentation of pounded breadfruit to 
enable us to connect it with the Indonesian and Semitic here proposed. The 
Malay masin finds its near relative in Nuclear Polynesian masima salt. 

233- 
sau, gentle breeze, cold air, as in the morning and evening. 

Tonga : haua, to be exposed to the wind, to blow to and fro. Niue : 
hahau, hauhau, cool. Maori: hau, wind, to be borne on the 
wind : hauhau, cool. Tahiti : hahau, to go aslant or beat in, 
as the rain driven by the wind into a house ; haumoe, the cold 
night breezes of the valleys ; mehau, wind ; puihauhau, to blow 
gently, as a small breeze; haumaru, cool, grateful. Hawaii: 
hau, the name of the land breeze that blows at night, any cool 
breeze ; hauhau, cool ; kehau, the mountain breeze in the morn- 
ing, a cold fine rain or mist. Marquesas : tohau, a gentle wind. 
Mangareva: hau, to blow gently. Rapanui: hou, breeze; 

hahau, hauhau, air, breeze ; hakahahau, to expose to the air. 

Viti: thauthau, the land breeze. 

Malay: hawa, wind. 

Hebrew : nas'af, to blow ; nes'ef, the evening twilight when a colder 
gale blows, the morning twilight. 

In discussing the sau stems which are involved in this and the next 
two items Mr. Tregear with truth remarks that it is difficult to seg- 
regate the several senses under proper headings since the significations all 
pass into one another. The only contribution toward the classification 
of the matter which I can offer is the note that sau dew belongs to a stem 
which is either saut or saum in Proto-Samoan, and that sau to cut derives 
from a stem in sauf . True, this will not avail much in the present stage 
of Polynesian with open stems, but it will serve as a safe guide so far as it 
may go in tracing out earlier affinities. The sau of wind and temperature 
seems to be from a primitive sau. 

The Semitic identification offered is distinctly triliteral. Even were we 
to grant that the Hebrew / might become Polynesian u we are still left with 
an initial n upon our hands and unaccounted for. 

234- 
sau, the dew. 

Samoa : sau, the dew ; sasau, heavy dew ; fa'asau, to bedew. Fu- 
tuna : sau, the dew ; fakasau, to expose to dew. Tonga : hahau, 
dew, mist ; haujia, hauhau, wet with dew. Niue : hahau, dew ; 
haumia, bedewed. Uvea: hahau, dew. Maori: hau, haurutu, 
hauku, haunui, dew; haumaku, hautaku, bedewed, wet. 
Tahiti: hau, dew; tahau, to bleach clothes in the dew of the 
morning ; tiohau, to bleach in the dew ; toehatimi, soft or damp 
as by dew. Hawaii: hau, cold dew. Mangareva: hau, au, 
dew. Rapanui, Marquesas: hau, id. Rarotonga: au, dew. 

Viti: sasau, dew. 

Malagasy: andu, dew. 

Arabic : nada' (for nadau), dew. 



DATA AND NOTES. 283 

The Proto-Samoan saut rests upon protected forms in Samoa, Tonga, and 
Maori. The stem saum in the same sense is preserved in Nine, Tahiti, 
and Maori. I can find no evidence of the interchange of t and m except 
the apparent instance in 217, which, as there shown, is susceptible of a far 
simpler explanation. 

The Viti sasau is a dialect form, the Bau using tengu and mbite, but with 
sau appearing in Efat€ it is not necessary to consider sasau a recent acqui- 
sition from the Tongan. 

The Malagasy and Arabic might better be offered as homogenetic with 
dew itself than with saum and saut. 

235- 
sau-f i, to scoop or shave the surface off water ; to cut or shave off the sur- 
face of wood ; sau- baba, an adze, to strip off, to peel off (as clothes) . 
Samoa: sasau, a large axe; saupapa, sdupapa, to cut off the outer 
part of a log of wood to make it level and even ; saufono, to cut 
planks for a canoe ; sautasi, one wide plank of a canoe. Tonga : 
hahau, to adze, to chip logs of wood square. Maori: hau, 
hauhau, hahau, to hew, to chop. Tahiti: hauhau, to take off 
the first chips in hollowing a tree. Hawaii: /ta^aw, to hew stones. 
Viti: sautha, to cut (as bamboos, reeds), to break a coconut for 

drinking (by cracking off a piece at the tip). 
Malagasy: sauka, saufina, to scoop out (of water), to draw water. 
Hebrew : s'a'ab, to draw water. The primary idea lies in the raking 
off the surface, sahaf, to sweep, to scrape off, hasaf, to strip off. 
Arabic: sahaf a, to scrape, peel or rub off, to shave. 
My recognition of a Proto-Samoan sauf is based upon the Efat^, for our 
Polynesian is scanty and affords us no protected forms from which the stem 
might be revealed. I recognize that this stem does not seem to apply to 
the Viti, but that is in sense a doubtful identification. 

The first of Dr. Macdonald's definitions of saufi is a treasure; it surely 
was first drafted by one of the Danaids in her aquatic employment. The 
reason for its presence in the Bfat6 dictionary will, of course, be found in 
the Semitic suggestion. The true signification is to hew with the adze, 
and it is only in the Maori that this sense is not made to appear in the 
definition. This stamps the Viti identification as inconsistent. 

The Malagasy has not the Polynesian sense, but it does accord with the 
Efatd scooping of water. 

236. 
tau-ngi, to grasp firmly with the hand, to pluck off with the hand (as fruit). 
Samoa: tau, to pluck fruit with the hand; tau, to press out (as 
juice), to milk. Tonga : tau, to squeeze or wring out. Futuna : 
tau, ta-tau, to squeeze, to express. Niue: tau, to gather 
gardenias; tatau, to wring, to strain, to press out. Uvea: 
tatau, to press; taui, to pluck. Maori: tatau, to squeeze, to 
express juice. Fotuna : ko-tauia, to wring, to express. 
Viti: taura, to take hold of. 

Malay: sambut, to lay hold of. Malagasy: sambutra, id. 
Hebrew : sabat, to grasp, to lay hold of firmly, to seize, to pluck. 
Arabic: s'abata, fabat'a, id. 



284 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

It is impossible to see how the Indonesian and the Semitic, though there 
is a superficial resemblance between them, can have anything to do with 
the Efat6 and Polynesian of this item. 

237- 
tula, earwax. 

Maori, Tahiti : taturi, earwax. Mangareva: teturi, id. Paumotu: 
katuri, id. Hawaii: kokuli, id. 'Botuna: turituri, id. Mar- 
quesas: tetui, id. 
Viti: tule, ndule, earwax. 
Baki: tiro, earwax. Mota: tul, id. 

Malay: chulik, to clear the ears of wax. Bicol: tuli, earwax. 
Arabic: salah, deafness. 

Because of the fact that the island diagnosticians regard cerumen as 
the sole cause of deafness and in their practice of medicine not infrequently 
produce deafness by their exploratory excavation of the ear, and because 
of the intimate association of this stem with the most common word for 
deafness, I include the latter for the extension of this record. 

Samoa: tuli, talingatuli, deaf. Tonga: tuli, id. Futuna: tuli- 
tuli, id. Uvea: tuli, id. Nine: talingatuli, id. Hawaii: 
kuli, id. Tahiti: turi, taturi, id. Maori: turi, id. Marquesas: 
tui, to disobey, to turn a deaf ear ; hadtetui, to turn a deaf ear ; 
putui, deaf, disobedient ; hadpufui, to turn a deaf ear. Rarotonga : 
turi, deaf. Mangareva: turi, noise. Paumotu: taringaturi, 
disobedient. Fotuna: eturitura, deaf. Nuguria: tarina- 

turi, id. 

Viti: ndalingatule, deaf. 

Motu : tuia, to quiet. 

Malay: tuli, deaf. Matu: turang, id. 

From this it apppears that in the very center of Nuclear Polynesia tuli 
means deaf, yet that the sense is more precisely conveyed by joining with 
it the organ affected, talinga being, of course, the outer ear, which is as far 
as their knowledge of aural anatomy goes. This composite is the only 
means of recording deafness in Nine, which has not retained the tuli-stera 
in independent existence. It is the only means in Polynesian Viti (for it 
has a Melanesian term, ndindivara) , which retains tule (ndule) for the ceru- 
men. In Samoa both talingatuli and tuli exist side by side in the same 
sense. In the remotest Polynesia of all, the Paumotu, an archipelago of 
linguistic problem, the word exists in a tropical sense only. But the rest 
of Polynesia expresses its deafness satisfactorily by tuli, and we find the 
word in Indonesia and possibly in Motu. 

Now if we regard the employment of tuli for cerumen we shall note that 
such use extends from Indonesia into Viti. Of Nuclear Polynesia we can 
not speak with greater precision than to say that all our dictionaries have 
omitted this sense in defining tuli; at the same time they have neglected 
to define cerumen at all. But in all eastward Polynesia, the lands of the 
Tongafiti swarm, it is necessary to reinforce tuli with another element in 
differentiation from the sense of deafness. This element stems the same 
throughout this second migration, subject to the normal variation. It is ta 



DATA AND NOTES. 285 

in Maori and Tahiti, ka in the Paumotu, ko in Hawaii, te in Mangareva and 
the Marquesas. That it was brought by this migration from its western 
home is shown by this uniformity, and it is in use wherever that migra- 
tion has reached. It is so ancient that no trace of its original significance 
can now be discovered. 

By combining these two records we find : 

(i) The Proto-Samoans used tuli to mean the visible physical obstruction 
of the ear, and to convey the sense of deafness they employed a locution 
signifying waxed-ear. 

(2) The Tongafiti when their migration swarmed had reached a stage 
in which tuli had lost its primal sense, was altogether used of deafness, and 
to convey the cerumen meaning a compound was necessary. 

(3) Nuclear Polynesia, being a meeting-ground of the two migrations, 
shows the record of the earlier overlaid by the later. 

The use in Fotuna of the tuli-cerntnen and tuli-deai is one of the inter- 
esting pieces of evidence to show that the squadron which settled that verge 
island had been in the area where the Proto-Samoan and Tongafiti swarms 
had been in conjunction, and that the period of its voyage must have been 
subsequent to the coming of the Tongafiti fleets to Nuclear Polynesia. 

238. 
uta i, uta ki, to load (to make sink, to immerse) a canoe ; uta, a canoe load, 
a cargo. 
Samoa : uta, the cargo, the load of a boat, ship or canoe. Tonga : 
uta, the cargo or freight of a vessel. Uvea: uuta, to fill up. 
Futuna: uta, cargo, lading. Maori: uta, to put on board a 
canoe, to freight, to load ; utanga, cargo, lading. Mangareva : 
uta, to carry by sea to land or by sea to another conntry; utanga, 
a big loading "or freight. Marquesas: uta, to carry, to 

transport; utatina, utaia, cargo. Paumotu: utanga, bag- 

gage, burden, freight, the lading of a ship. Rapanui: 
hakauta, to give passage. Tahiti: utaa, the burden or load of 
vessel. Hawaii : ukana, baggage on or to be put on a canoe 
or vessel; hoouka, to freight, to put aboard a canoe. Fotuna: 
auta, cargo; fakaute, to load. 
Viti : usana, usa, to convey a cargo ; usana, usausa, a cargo. 
Tanna: {t)auuta, to load; nauuta, cargo, 
Malagasy: undrana, to load a canoe. 
Arabic: "dta ("a'tu), to immerse. 
There is no evidence to show that this is other than an open stem, yet 
Dr. Macdonald joins it with utu (168), of which the stem is demonstrably 
utuf, and derives both from a Semitic parent of an Arabic word meaning to 
immerse. In clinching the identification he so defines this uta as to lose 
all sight of common sense. The one aim of the ^fate stevedore and of 
the lumpers aboard the greatest cargo tramp that ever steamed away from 
the Broomielaw is so to stow the lading of his canoe, of their whaleback, 
as to preclude all risk that he shall "make it to sink or immerse." Does 
not the man know that in the days when shipmen had the piety that fears 
the sea all ships' papers, after reciting the cargo, wound up with the prayer, 
at least the formula, ' 'and so may God send the good ship safe deliverance" ? 



286 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

"Toload,"he says, "to make sink, to immerse," and all because tlieArabians 
of the nights use for immerse a word which he thinks to look like uta. 

The word, belonging to both migration swarms, is practically one from 
Melanesia to the Paumotu, both in form and in sense. Very little, there- 
fore, calls for comment. In the Marquesas utatina involves the termination 
tina peculiar to that language, but which has the same function as the 
common nga or na wherewith nouns are formed from verbs. Our Uvea 
dictionary is very jejune, but there can be no doubt that uuta has the char- 
acteristic cargo sense. In Viti we encounter the t-s mutation, which is by 
no means unusual in that speech and will be found elsewhere in Melanesia. 
The Malagasy has the usual distortion of the resemblance of the words in 
that language which stem upon the Polynesian. 

EFATE-MELANESIAN-POLYNESIAN-MAIvAY-SEMlTIC. 

239- 
asua, to smoke. 

Samoa: ai'M, smoke. Nuguria: ofew, thin smoke ; att, thick smoke. 
Nukuoro: asu, smoke. Rotuma: aasu, osu, id. Tonga, 
Niue, Uvea: ahu, id. Futuna: afu, id. Maori: au, auahi, id. 
Tahiti: au, smoke, vapor; au auahi, smoke; auahi, fire. Ma- 
ngareva : au, cloudy mist on the ocean ; ahu, mist, cloud ; auaht, 
smoke. Marquesas: auahi, smoke, vapor. Rapanui: hu, 
auahi, steam, vapor. Hawaii: uahi, a cloud, a vaporous 
appearance. Rarotonga: auai, smoke. 
Moanus: kdsu, kdsumoan (moan, fire), smoke. Sariba, Panaieti, 
Mukawa: kasu, id. Awalama: bogaku, id. Malekula Aulua : 
hasua, id. Galavi: basu, id. Taupota: bahubahu, id. 

Wedau, Boniki : bau, id. Motu : qalahu, id. Nifilole : nggasi, id. 
Ulawa, Bululaha : .yo^M, id. PAite^: rasu, id. Malo, Tangoan 
Santo, Maewo, Merlav, Gog, Mota, Wango, Fagani, Suau, Dobu : 
asu, id. Sesake: asua, id. Savo: azuazu, id. Mosin: or, id. 
Mafoor (New Guinea) : aas, id. Malekula Pangkumu : ese, id. 
Ambrym: wa/eM, id. Vuras: e.f, id. Sasar, AloTeqel, Pak: 
oj, id. Santo: ostm, id. 'Nggao: ngganggahu, id. Bugotu, 
Nggela,Omba: o/iM,id. Motlav,Volow,Arag: afeo, id. Lakon: 
ahauav, id. ho: hiev, id. Roro: hiavu, id. Norbarbar: ah, 
suio, id. Buka: uruhu, orru, id. Nada, Murua: museu, id. 
Kiriwina: umseu, id. 
Malay: asdp, smoke. Malagasy: etuna, id. 
Hebrew: 'as^en, 'as' an, to smoke. Arabic: 'at' ana, id. 
As between the two migrations we observe that the Tongafiti has under- 
gone a loss of the consonant element. Our Melanesian homogenetic forms 
are numerous and widely placed; we shall have to examine several con- 
siderable changes, but in not a single instance do we find this central con- 
sonant obliterated. 

When we look more closely into the Tongafiti languages we shall see that 
au has not only lost the radical s; it has scarcely succeeded in retaining the 
recollection of its own meaning. Mangareva is the only Tongafiti speech 
which recalls the consonant, in ahu, and this is paralleled by au; and both 
have gone so far away from the brands of the fire as to mean no more than 



DATA AND NOTES. 287 

any vapor. Maori and Tahiti are the only languages in which au means 
smoke; in each it means vapor in general, each employs more freely a 
definitive compound, and Maori has several other words for smoke. Hav- 
ing expanded in signification to mean vapor in general, the only way in 
which it was possible to make it plain when smoke alone was meant by au 
was to make the definitive compound fire- vapor auahi. This we find in 
Maori, in Mangareva, in Raro tonga to mean smoke. In the Marquesas this 
too means vapor as well. By an odd mischance in Tahiti auahi passed 
from the smoke to the fire itself, and to designate smoke it became neces- 
sary to cry back once more to au and devise au auahi. We have seen that 
in the Marquesas auahi means vapor as well. Passing thence to Hawaii 
we find that auahi has lost even the memory of the fire and it has broken 
down in form to iiahi, used of any vapor. Judge Andrews, ignorant of the 
life history of the word, etymologizes this — no other description so fits — 
as u ooze or milk, and ahi fire ; unfortunately the author of the very respect- 
able Hawaiian dictionary was no philologist. It is proper to note that in 
Emerson's English- Hawaiian dictionary (1845) smoke is defined as uahi. 

In Nuclear Polynesia asu carries the vapor idea as well. Samoa differ- 
entiates by the use of the primitive for smoke and the conduplicate asuasu 
for haze and mist ; as is commonly the sense of conduplication forms, it is 
intensive. Futuna employs afu for both. In this area no matter of form 
change need engage our attention except this of Futuna. It is a particu- 
larly interesting case, one with a story to tell. 

We have in the material here assembled no record of an s-f mutation; 
in my more extended studies in Polynesia I have encountered no other 
instance and but two which are at all near it. We know that the Samoan 
has the primal form asu. The normal mutation is to h, and thus we have 
ahu in Tonga, Nine, and Uvea. But Futuna has no aspiration and it does 
possess the sibilant. Now if Samoan users of the word had carried it to 
Futuna, Uvea would have learned to say asu. From the Futuna afu we 
see that the word came to them in the ahu form. Our charts will show 
us that of the three languages which use ahu Uvea lies almost within sound . 
But Uvea uses both i' and h. If asu had come to Uvea from Samoa asu 
it would have remained ; that it is ahu shows that it came to Uvea from 
some language in which ahu was the form, and, having the aspirate, Uvea 
was under no compulsion to change the form which it received. But 
Futuna had to provide some way of dealing with the inconvenient or dis- 
agreeable h. In Polynesia h is a mutation result from s and from /. For 
some reason Futuna felt the impulse to work back from h to f instead of 
to s, which was all wrong, but, like all error, the more picturesque it is the 
better does it teach. Now the line is sharply drawn between the s-h and 
the f-h mutations ; s-h is general in Polynesia ; f-h occurs only between the 
Proto-Samoan and certain of the Tongafiti tongues. If, then, Futuna inter- 
prets the h which is brought to it in terms of / it can only be that the Futuna 
folk have the Tongafiti Sprachgeist, in other words that they are a Tongafiti 
folk left behind on their exiguous two islands when the swarm of their 
fellows swept along to distant discovery. At the beginning of this excursus 
I mentioned two instances of a near mutation. They involve Samoan salo 
to rasp (Tonga-Niue halu)Yit\ vara, Samoan sele to snare Tonga /je/eViti vcre. 



288 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

We have already seen that the Tongafiti folk have found it necessary 
to particularize smoke as fire- vapor. The same usage is found, though far 
less commonly, in Melanesia. We have in Moanus kasumoan, in which 
moan is fire although by no means of our ahi-fire stem ; Lakon ahau av and 
Lo hiev are clearly homogenetic with auahi; but these are all. 

The stem asu we find intact in a considerable group of languages in the 
New Hebrides and two in the southern Solomons. This stem is altered by 
frontal accretion of three palatals in Modnus, Nifilole, and Nggao, severally 
too remote to be regarded as local interinfluence ; of two Unguals in Ulawa- 
Bululaha and Alite, which only once more in all our material, sa (337) bad 
Tanna ra, are found interchanging; of one labial. I note Codrington's 
opinion that "Nggao ngganggahu is the Mota gagavu thick, clouded." But 
is it? Moanus kasu is nearer phonologically and far nearer in the migration 
track, for a derivation from Mota to the Solomons is an upstream movement 
and against the current. I do not incline to regard this frontal accretion 
as a Melanesian device; it seems more reasonable to look upon it as the 
remnant of an earlier stem form, but what that earlier and now vanished 
radical initial may have been we may not seek to know. 

Savo shows asu with the slight change from surd to sonant. Two lan- 
guages in the Solomons and one in the New Hebrides have asu with equally 
slight change from sibilant to aspirate. Motlav, Volow and Arag, all in 
the New Hebrides, carry the change a small step farther by the alteration 
of the final vowel. A step beyond in the change of the final vowel brings 
us to Lakon. Efate and Sesake have the asu stem unchanged save for the 
terminal accretion of the vowel a. 

Thus far we have kept close to the primal form. Now, while holding 
fast to the s, we are to find a greater vowel change in Malekula Pangkumu 
ese and one which sacrifices the differentiation of the two vowels which has 
hitherto been found to persist. To this branch of the stem belongs the 
Vuras es. With it I have included Ambry m walehi provisionally; the ehi 
can not be a mutant of afi fire, for that is av in Ambrym ; I have thought 
it possible that ehi is a further mutant upon ese, and wal is as yet unac- 
countable. Santo osun with a terminal accretion introduces the o-branch 
which will be noticed in Rotuma as well and in three of the Vanua Lava 
languages with terminal abrasion. Norbarbar shows in one of its forms a 
terminal abrasion deriving from either ahu or aho, but probably the former. 
Lo suggests in hi a frontal abrasion, and that principle may also account 
for a part of the second Norbarbar form suio. One Buka form, uruhu, quite 
plainly suggests in uhu another vowel change of asu, leaving ur unaccount- 
able yet somewhat smacking of wal in Ambrym walehi, or perhaps in these 
words ruhu and lehi are akin to Alite rasu ; the second Buka form is mani- 
festly a devolution form from the former. 

In the Malay asdp we recur to the definitive compoimd of the Tongafiti, 
as-ap, in which the latter component is again afi fire. The Malagasy seems 
like an asu derivative. 

In the Semitic there is seen the initial palatal which appears here in 
Melanesian, the former vowel is the same, the s is present, and the final n 
is found once at least in Melanesia. So far as this one stem is concerned 
the resemblance is striking. 



DATA AND NOTES. 289 

240. 

aue, interjection of surprise, commiseration. 

Samoa: awe, alas, oh (wonder). Nine: aue, alas. Maori: aue, 

alas (surprise). Hawaii: aue, auwe, alas. Mangareva: aue, 

alas (surprise and grief) . Tahiti, Raro tonga, Paumotu : aue, atas. 

Tongarewa: awai,id. Tonga: oiaue,a.\as. Aniwa: feawe.alas. 

Futuna: uei, alas (indignation, surprise). Marquesas: aue, ue 

(surprise). Fotuna: awe, alas. Rapanui: aue, aueue, ue, alas. 
Aneityum: awe, auwe, iyauwe, alas. Nguna: ai, id. Mota: 

awa, id. Bromanga: uwe, id. Tanna Weasisi: awe, id. 

Bierian, Baki: awa, id. 
Malay: ahi, ayi, ayue, alas. 
Arabic: awwi, alas. 

It is a sure identification from the Paumotu through all Polynesia, 
through all Melanesia, through all Indonesia, and to the Semitic if one so 
will. And to the cow, if one so will, for I have caught it in the calf-call of 
lowing kine. And why should it not be identifiable, for the word lacks 
all the elements of strength which part the word from the cry? There is 
not a consonant anywhere in it, for the w is no more than a matter of tran- 
scription ; it might just as well be u. Only in Aniwa do we find a consonant, 
the deepest palatal and initial at that. To me it seems no more present 
than is the initial m in the moo of cattle, a mere appulse. 

What is this cry which our primitive islanders share with the animals? 
Look at its elements, all full-throated. First we have a, the sound of 
mouth open, fauces open, lungs full of air. As air expires the sound recedes 
in the mouth toward the palate and we find the u. Last comes the con- 
scious finish of the utterance, the muscles begin to retract, the sound-mak- 
ing point is forced forward and the sound is e. If the man had but a few 
more cubic centimeters of lung capacity he could attain cow volume for 
his cry, or interjection, since it amounts to the same thing. 

241. 

bwala, bwela, bwola, to incline to, to be close to, to be stuck. 

Samoa : pili, to be near, to approach, to be caught, entangled. Nine : 
pili, to stick together. Hawaii : pili, near, close, to stick 
together. Maori : piri, to stick ; pipiri, to be close together. 
Tahiti: piri, to be squeezed or confined close. Rarotonga: 
piri, to stick together; akapiripiri, to get near. Mangareva: 
piri, to stick together; akapiri, to patch, to glue. Paumotu: 
plriplri, glue ; f akapiri, to adhere. Rapanui : piri iho, to devote 
oneself to; pipiri, glue, gum, sticky; hakapiri, to join to. 
Marquesas: pii, to be joined together, to stick. 

Motu : hebirihebiri, to sit or stand close together, as trees standing 
close together ; hebirimatemate, to be squeezed, crowded. Mota : 
kpwir, to be close together; vakpwirkpwir, to crowd together. 
Aneityum : bili, promiscuously. 

Malay: ampiri, to bring near to; ambir, near, nigh. 

Arabic : mala, mayV, to incline, bend, or lean to, to be close or near. 



290 TH^ POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The identifications here in Polynesia, Melanesia, and Indonesia are closer 
than the Efat6, yet that is not so far away as to be excluded. It will be 
noticed that the places in which these Melanesian identifications appear — 
Motu, Mota, New Hebrides — are those which go to establish the Viti track 
which I have proposed as one of the migration courses. 

In the Malay words the pili stem is recognizable in company with a 
formative element. The m is manifestly not associable with piri-bir. 

It must be upon these Malay words as transition forms that our author 
relies in passing to his Arabic. This lacks permissibility. 

242. 
bwinu, bwin, bonge, to whistle. 

Samoa : vivini, to crow. Futuna : vini, vinivini, to utter a cry of 

alarm, of distress or of joy. Mangareva : vinivini, a soft sound, 

musical, music. Paumotu: vinivini, the cry of a baby, to 

chirp, to warble ; hakavinivini, to whistle, to hiss at. 

Malekula Pangkumu and Uripiv: puinpuin, winwin, to whistle. 

Ambrym: mo fin, id. 
Malagasy: enu, nenu, manenu, to sound, to crow, to ring, to sing. 
Arabic: ina'anu, a singer; "aniya, to sing, to coo; "ina, song. 
Hebrew: 'anah, to sing. 
As to the homology of v-hm-pu see note 84 dealing with Efate hu. The 
dialectic form bongS does not seem such that we may include it. 

The word is singularly rare in its distribution. The Malagasy can not 
properly be included in the identification, and the Semitic with its deepest 
guttural for an initial is far remote from the island stem. 

.... , . ^43- 

Dir 1, to plait a stnng or rope. 

Samoa, Futuna, Nine : fili, to plait, to braid, to twist. Tahiti : firi, id. 

Maori: whiri, id. Mangareva: hiri, id. Hawaii: hili, id. 

Mangaia: iri, id. Tonga: fi, id. Marquesas: fii, to twist. 

Solomon Islands: fili, a rope. Motu: hilia, to twist round and 

round. Mota : vir, to twist, to wring, to squeeze with a twist, 

to plait. 

Malay: pintal, to twist. Beu: pilin, id. Batavia: bilan, id. 

Arabic: fatala, fatV, to twist, to spin. Ethiopic: fatlat, id. 

In the Tongan fi here included because of identity of signification we 

encounter a form anomalous in the vanishing of the second of the stem 

syllables. In fisi (223) it will be observed that a similar loss is observed in 

Futuna, Niue, Viti, and the Tongafiti identifications. If in this light we 

examine the Mota identification of that group, vivi, vivis, it may be proper 

to separate them, vivis to go with the fisi stem, and viv to go (as abraded 

vivi) with a fi stem. To that would also belong the Efate fif i and probably 

the Saraoan. 

The remaining identifications are satisfactory, excluding Malay pintal, 

until we reach the Semitic. This involves the triliteral ftl. To link this 

with the fili stem requires that we account for the loss of t without having 

left a transition form anywhere along the line, all the more difficult to 

account for since, being centrally situated, it is protected from the common 

casualties. 



DATA AND NOTES. 291 

244. 

boro-aki, bTro-aki, bero-aki, baro-aki, to bequeath to or order to do (by 
will when dying), to commission (one to do something), to give 
orders to. 

Samoa: poloa'i, to send a message to, to command a person at a 
distance, to leave commands, as when going a journey or dying. 
Futuna : poloaki, to order, to command, to bid farewell. (Niue : 
poaki, puaki, to command. Tonga : hoboaki, to send a message.) 
Hawaii : poloai, to send orders for one to come. Maori : poroaki, 
to leave instructions when departing, to take leave. Ma- 
ngareva : poroaki, to command, to order. Marquesas : poodi, 
poohaki, to command, to entreat. Tahiti: poroi, a direction 
given, a charge, to take leave. Mangaia: poro, last words. 

Matupit : bor, to shout at, to scold harshly. 

Malay: />dj'an, to commission, to enjoin. Malagasy: hafatra, a. wiW 
or testament, order. 

Arabic : wasa', to bequeath by will, to command, to enjoin. 

The stem is polo. 

This is seen in a radical signification in Mangaia, the only case in which 
the noun has been preserved. This sense of the last words, or, in the verb, 
to impart dying injunctions, has as much importance to the Polynesians as 
police attach to ante-mortem statements, a fetish in the performance of 
their peculiar functions. He dies well in the Pacific who, upon fine mats 
and with the members of his family seated gravely about him, can divide 
among his kin not his possessions, for those are largely communal, but the 
functions in life upon the successful performance of which he can look back 
with pleased gratification. 

This is so concrete an act that I incline to the belief that it is the gravely 
underlying sense of the word. It is found as noun in Mangaia, as verb in 
Samoa, where, however, the particular sense is in modern usage more defi- 
nitely expressed in fa'amavaenga or parting words. A secondary sense, as 
the word broke down, was to cover the farewell of any parting; this in 
Samoa, Futuna, Maori and Tahiti. Next, with the idea still persisting of 
the inexorability of the death-bed injunction, the word weakens still further 
into the sense of a command ; this in Futuna, Mangareva, Tahiti and the 
Marquesas, and, disregarding now the form anomaly, in Tonga and Nine. 
All these languages have other words meaning to command. That this 
command differs from other orders is felt in all these tongues; it is defi- 
nitely expressed in Samoa "to command a person at a distance" and the 
tantamount Hawaiian. 

Except for Ffat^ we do not find the stem in Melanesia. I have included 
the Matupit form from New Britain because of its form resemblance; the 
sense is so far awry as to make the identification quite doubtful. 

In Kfat^ and Polynesia, excepting Tahiti and Mangaia, we find that the 
word has spread in its most highly finished form. In general the Polyne- 
sian verbs in -aki impress me as a most modem development. The diffu- 
sion of this one shows that it must have existed in this form at the time of 
the expulsion of the Tongafiti swarm from Samoa. The form in Niue and 



292 ■ THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Tonga is anomalous; we do not often find the excision in Polynesian of a 
whole root syllable ; yet the sense and the identity of the remnant seem to 
prove these forms of the polo stem. 

Backward of Efate, save the Matupit resemblance, I recognize no identi- 
fication. 

245. 
bwosi, to twist (a rope). 

Samoa: fusi, a belt, a girdle, to tie, to bind, to gird, to clasp, to 
embrace. Tonga: fuhi, to fasten on. Nine: fuhi, a bunch, 
to tie together. Uvea : fihu, to tie. Hawaii : hui, a bunch, 
a cluster. Mangareva: huhui, a tied-up bimdle of fruit, a 
cluster, a bunch. 

Viti : vusi, to suspend by a loop, to fasten, to tie up. 

Nengone: wose, to bind; nawose, a band. 

Malay: pusing, to twist, to turn round. 

Arabic : 'afasa, to twist. 

Because Dr. Macdonald has identified 6tt;o^i with fusi I have here expanded 
the ramifications of that stem, the more particularly as it has Melanesian 
affiliations. Yet I do not by any means accept the initial identification. 
Principally from the sense I regard bwosi as homogenetic with fist (223); 
and the form variety is no more than we find in other Efate identifications 
which we are quite ready to accept as valid. 

Of Polynesian fusi we are to note that it is wholly Nuclear Polynesian, 
the Uvea variant being readily resolvable as metathetic of the 1432 type. 
This fusi we find in Viti, Nengone, and Malay. The Arabic is a triliteral, 
*fs, and we can not account for the sacrifice of the initial. 

The Hawaiian and Mangareva forms I have expressly included in order 
that I might clarify a Nine peculiarity. They are not of the fusi stem; 
their stem is fui, so found in Samoa and in the Polynesian of each migration 
swarm. Niue fuhi is of the fusi stem in the sense of tying; to the cluster 
(fui) sense it has assigned the fusi stem. This I can not regard as a transi- 
tion form between the two stems, for neither .$• nor h undergoes extinction 
in passing from Samoa to Niue. I take it as simply a Niue blunder. That 
such blunders may happen I have already made sufficiently clear in Futuna 
afu (239). 

Dr. Macdonald equally identifies the Malay pusing with fisi (223). 

246. 
buma, funga, to flower, to blossom. 

Samoa: funga, a flower, a blossom. Nukuoro: hunga, a flower. 
Sesake : vunga, a blossom, a berry. Malekula Pangkumu : pung, 

to blossom. 
Malay: hunga, flower, blossom. Malagasy: vuni, flower; mamuni, 

to blossom. 
Arabic: fukah, flower. 

It is impossible to avoid the impression that there lies somewhere a con- 
nection between this relatively infrequent word and the widespread fua 
(360) fruit. The consideration of this stem, therefore, will be involved, 
so far as may be fitting, in the discussion of that item. 



DATA AND NOTES. 293 

247. 
buto, the navel. 

Samoa : pute, the navel. 

Tangoan Santo, Lambell, Lamassa : buto, the navel. New Ireland 

(Carteret Harbor) : buta, id. New Ireland (Duffield) : ambu- 

tang, id. I^aur, Pala, King, Malo: bito, id. Malekula 

Pangkumu: bitou, id. Baki: burimbito, id. Buka: vuso, 

bussusse, id. Mota: putoi, id. Tanna: nu-puti, id. Tagula: 

bibido. Roro : botoa. Kabadi : puko. Mekeo : fuko. Motu : vdo. 

Pokau:mwrfo. Mukawa : /)zwo. SvLaM:uso. Tubetube : />MJMa. 

Awalama: buhoho. Wedau: buo. Nada, Murua: poso. 

Sariba: post. Mugula: poasi. Panaieti, Misima: pohu. 

Hula : buro. Rubi, Keapara, Galoma : bulo. Sinaugoro : ulo. 

Malay: pusat, the navel. Malagasy: fuitra, id. 

Arabic : bugrat, the navel, a knob. 

With this should be included the general Polynesian piio navel. Samoa, 

which has pute for navel, uses pito only in the sense of the end of a thing 

and \pitopito for anus, this apparently for modesty's sake in preference 

over pu. 

Maori : pito, navel, end. Tahiti : pito, navel, navel string; pitoraoere, 

the ends of a leaf surround in fishing. Marquesas : pito, navel, 

navel string, end. Mangaia : />i/o, navel string. Mangareva: 

pito, navel, end; pitopito, button. Paumotu: pito, navel; 

pitopito, hvLtton. Tonga: fcifo, navel. Nine, Rapanui, Nukuoro, 

Futima : pito, navel. Hawaii, piko, navel, end. 

I have no hesitation in associating the two as probable offshoots of 

the same stem and as certainly alternate forms. I can not yet produce 

any one of these languages in which the two forms appear side by side, yet 

it is possible to present evidence but little inferior. We have four languages 

recorded from a sixty-mile stretch of southern coast on the west face of New 

Ireland, and three of these are so intimately associated that the differences 

are but dialect variations. In fact before the casting of this note into its 

final form the Pala speech has become accessible and shall stand as a fifth 

consenting speech. In these five we find buto in Lambell and Lamassa, bito 

in King, Laur, and Pala, all in the sense of navel. The conclusion is not 

to be gainsaid that buto and bito mean navel and that Samoan is the only 

Poljmesian speech which has retained the buto form and thus avoids 

confusion with pito the end, a confusion which exists in other Polynesian 

speech, particularly of the Tongafiti swarm. 

The possession of the j-forms in Buka and New Guinea leads the way to 
the acceptance of the Malay pusat, regarding the final t as due to local needs. 
But we have no evidence for the Malagasy. 
The Arabic is scarcely a resemblance. 

248. 
goro, koro, to snore. 

Maori: ngongoro, to snore. Mangareva: ngoro, id. Paumotu: 
ngooro, id. Hawaii: nonolo, id. Tahiti: ooro, id. Niug: 
tungolo, id. Samoa, Tonga: tangulu, id. 



294 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Viti : nggonggori, a man that a god enters when asleep, indicated by 

a singular kind of snore. 
Motu : uru, stertorous breathing. Mota : ngora, to grunt, to snort, 

to snore. 
Malay: ngorok, to snore. 
Hebrew : nahar, to snort, to breathe hard through the nose. Syriac : 

nkar, id. Ethiopia: nehera, to snore. 

In Nuclear Polynesia we find the stem in association with an element 
whose function we can not explain, ta in Samoa and Tonga, tu in Niue. 
The remaining identifications, including the Malay, are free of difficulty. 
The Paumotu ngooro is a rare form of duplication ; that it is a case of pre- 
duplication is established by comparison with the Maori. 

The Semitic exhibits the usual difficulty in that it calls for the reduction 
of a triliteral, nhr, by internal loss. 

249. 

kita, to divine; kikita, ngkita, to perceive or feel with the eye or mind. 

Samoa : 'i'ite, to predict, to foretell ; fe'ite'itea'i, to see indistinctly 
as in the twilight, to be just distinguishable. Tonga : kite, to 
appear, to see at a distance when at sea; kikite, fakdkikite, to 
divine, to foretell, to augur, to prophesy; fekitengaki, to be in 
sight of each other; fakakite, to look anxiously and narrowly 
at anything, as at what may be reported (land at sea or a vessel 
in sight) ; fakakitekite, anything new or strange done or said by 
a person just before his decease and afterwards referred to as a 
prognostication. Futuna: kite, to appear; kikite, to predict, 
to foresee, clairvoyant. Niue : kitekite, to look at, to examine ; 
fakakite, to make known, to show; fakakiteanga, a vision. 
Uvea: kikite, fakakikite, to augur, to divine, to prophesy; kite. 
to appear. Maori : kite, to see, to know, to perceive ; whakakite, 
to reveal, to disclose. Mangareva: kite, to see, to understand, 
to perceive. Rarotonga : kite, to see. Marquesas : kite, to 
see, to know ; haakitea, to appear. Paumotu : kite, to perceive, 
to know; fakakite, to show, to presage. Tongarewa: kite, 
kikite, to see ; hakakikite, to cause to see. Nukuoro : kite, to see ; 
hakakitea, to show ; matakite, a soothsayer, a prophet. Manahiki : 
kitea, to know. Sikayana: kite, to see. Aniwa: citi, id. 
Tahiti: ite, to know, to understand, to perceive; faaite, to teach. 
Hawaii : ike, to see, to understand, to perceive ; hoike, to show. 
Motu: kito, to spy, to watch for. 

The following mean to see: 

Panaieti: kite. Sariba: kita. Galavi, Boniki, Mukawa: kitai. 

Sariba : gita. Sinaugoro, Tubetube : gitai. Motu, Rubi, Kubiri, 

Kiviri: itai. Doura: ikai. Suau, Dobu: ita. Roro: itana. 

Raqa: iti. Oiun: itin. Pokau: ikala. Hula, Keapara: gia. 

Galoma: ia. Kabadi: is' ana. 
Tagalog: quita, to see. Malagasy: hita, mahita, id. 
Arabic: wagada, to find with the eye or the mind, to perceive. 



DATA AND NOTES. 295 

I suggest an identification in Viti ndike to look at, to scrutinize. This 
is permissible if we regard this as metathetic and in the 3214 type, a rarity 
in metathesis, yet exactly paralleled in the same language in uila-liva. 

If it were not for its occurrence in Efate and in Motu I should class this 
word as of the Tongafiti migration, for in very few instances do we find a 
stem so well nigh universal in Polynesia which has left vestiges so rare and 
so widely scattered in Melanesia. It seems quite as rare in Indonesia. 

The Semitic involves Dr. Macdonald's favorite principle of whittling 
down a triliteral (wgd) in any way which will fit it to his proof, in this 
instance by excision of the first syllable. 

250. 
kufangufa, to fly, to flap the wings, to flutter. 

Tonga : kapakau, wing ; kapakapa, the side fins of sharks, to flicker, 
to flutter, to hover on the wing. Futuna: kapakau, wing; 
kapakapatau, the movement of birds about to perch. Nine : 
tapakau, wing, fin ; kapakapa, to flap, to flutter. Uvea : kapa- 
kau, wing. Maori, Mangaia: kakapa, kapakapa, to flap, to 
flutter. Samoa: 'apa'au, v^ing; 'apa'apa, Hn; 'apatd, to clap 
the wings. Nuguria: kapaukau,u-pperann. Tahiti: apaapa, 
to flap. Fotuna, pahkau, wing. Rotuma: papau, id. 
Ulawa, Saa, Bululaha, Ugi : apaapa, wing. Wango, Alite : abaaba, id. 
Mota : gava, to fly with flapping wings. Fagani : kakafo, wing, 
Marina: gave, id. Arag: gapaun, id. Pak, Sasar, Alo 
Teqel: gapugi, id. Savo: gavara, id. 
Magindano: kapakapa, a. isin. Malagasy: kepakepaka,^ovmcQ(lm 
the wind. Malay: kapak, to fly with flapping wings; kepak, 
wing. Kawi: paksa, bird. Basakrama: paksi, id. Magin- 
dano: papak, a wing. Baliyon: pa pak, a bird. Tagalog, 
Bicol: pacpac, wing. 
Arabic: h'afaka, to fly, to flap the wings. 
In Polynesia gliding flight is expressed by lele, flight on flapping wing 
by kapa. In Nuclear Polynesia kapa does not pass into the wing sense 
except through the aid of a composition member kau. In Samoan 'au we 
find this to mean a stalk, a handle; in reference to the body its sense as 
that of some projecting member is exhibited in 'aualujna (the 'au in front) 
as a very delicate euphemism for the penis. So 'apa'au would mean liter- 
ally the projecting member that flaps. We encounter kapakau in Tonga, 
Futuna, Uvea, and in Samoan 'apa'au. In Nine we find a change that can 
only mean failure to comprehend and to preserve the primal signification 
of the composite, for, while kapakapa is to flutter, tapakau shows a modi- 
fication that has no reason either in sense or in phonology. I am no little 
doubtful as to Rotuma papau. But as that interesting language has many 
irregularities which as yet quite elude systematic reduction I deem it 
advisable to class papau with kapakau; it does seem an echo form. 

Fotuna pahkau shows a frontal abrasion of kapakau. This is character- 
istic of the Tongafiti word for wing. 

Maori: pakau, wing. Moriori: pakau, arm. Tahiti: peheu, fin. 
Marquesas: peeheu, pekeheu, wing. Mangareva: pehau, wing. 
Hawaii: peheu, wing, fin. 



296 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

There is a uniformity about these Tongafiti words which indicates a 
reason acting upon them all which was not in action upon the Proto- 
Samoan swarm, and we see that the change is progressive in the Tongafiti. 
As I feel it this reason is that by the time the Tongafiti were ready to leave 
Indonesia they had lost all recollection of kapakau as the flapping member, 
and being a mere vocable used uncomprehendingly as a label for a natural 
object it was subject to the humors of speakers in making changes. Thus 
we may comprehend the changes in Indonesia. Malay, Magindano and 
Malagasy alone retain the first syllable. All the others received the word 
when that syllable was gone, received it at the same time probably, received 
it certainly from the Tongafiti after they had reduced the word. The 
Magindano papak wing and Baliyon papak bird smack more than a little 
of Rotuma papau. 

Next, when we turn to Melanesia, we find forms variant only of the kapa 
stem. Mota, Marina, Arag, Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel, Savo, and Fagani all 
retain the initial palatal. It is only in the Solomons that we find this 
vanishing, and the mere dropping of the k is yet a long way from the 
dropping of the first syllable entirely. 

The Arabic has more than we can digest for our plain kapa, and even 
were we to admit the propriety of Dr. Macdonald's method of obtaining 
pleasing results by dropping out inconvenient elements the consonants of 
the Arabic stem, hfk, which might be identifiable with kp, appear in the 
inverse order. 

251- 
kusue, kusuue, rat, mouse. 

The following words all signify rat : 

Samoa: 'isumu. Nuguria: kisumu. 

Sesake: kusuwe. Mota: gasuwe. Vaturanga: ngasuve. Fagani: 
gasufe. Wango: gasuhe. ho: gahuwa. Merlav: gasuw. 
Sasar, Vuras, Alo Teqel, Norbarbar : gosow. Pak : gosog. Gog : 
gosug. Tanna : yasuk. Mosin -.gusuw. Mot\av,Yolow.gohow. 
Lakon: wohow. Alite: ngtiaua. Ulawa, Saa, Bululaha: 
asuhe. Malekula Pangkumu : asua. Nggao : kusi. Nggela, 
Bugotu : kuhi. Savo : kuzi. Malekula : khasup, akasu. 

Malay, Java, Baju: tikus. Massaratty: tikuti. Gah: karufei. 

Arabic: kutrub'. 

This is a peculiarly interesting word, for, if Polynesian, it seems to be a 
form that in the travel from Indonesia was widely disseminated by the way 
and yet not carried the whole distance. 

The Samoan 'isumu differs in one element from kusuwe, and nowhere in 
the many forms in Melanesia do we find a trace of this m. Yet the two 
earlier syllables in Samoan 'isumu and Nuguria kisumu strongly indicate a 
connection with the Melanesian in the backward past. Samoa has three 
rat names. It has this 'isumu; it retains, but little uses, the Tongafiti 
'iole; it employs most frequently the word 'imoa, which is identifiable only 
in Nukunau. 

Codrington (Melanesian Languages 87, note) says that "the old black Fiji 
rat is ngatho," a clear equivalent of kusuwe. This is not in Hazlewood's 



DATA AND NOT^S. 297 

dictionary, but Dr. Codrington had the benefit of notes on Viti by Lorimer 
Fison, a most competent authority; therefore this does not contravene but 
supplements the earUer dictionary. 

In the order in which I have arranged the Melanesian material it will 
be seen that there is a simple and easily followed sequence down to Alite, 
except for three items which need comment. In Gog -g suffixed to a stem 
determines its use as a noun, the same holds true of Pak; the two taken 
together argue the same explanation of the Tanna form. These, therefore, 
are not to be taken for a mutation to the final palatal. So little is known 
of Alite that we are not in a position to judge nguaua satisfactorily. I 
have examined all my material carefully with a view of identifying con- 
sonant mutations between Alite (and its neighbors Saa and Bululaha) on 
Malanta, and Vaturanga across the strait, and to no result. It will be 
plain that ngua echoes Vaturanga ngasuve, thus ng(a)(s)u(v)a; but this 
wholesale amputation of vowel and consonants too much resembles the 
freehand proof of Semitic origins to meet with cordial approval. Malekula 
khasap and akasu belong somewhere in this sequence which retains the 
initial consonant. So, too, do Nggao, Nggela, Bugotu, and Savo, in which 
the final syllable has been abraded. We find a small group in which the 
initial consonant has been abraded, Ulawa, Saa, Bululaha, and Malekula 
Pangkumu; and in the last the third consonant has vanished, although 
under the protection of a final vowel, but compare fua (360) Malekula 
Pangkumu mi uan for a vanishing /. 

The Indonesian offered by Macdonald and by Codrington does not seem 
susceptible of coordination. The Arabic is, of course, out of the question. 

252. 
laso, the testicles. 

Samoa: laso, the scrotum. Tonga, Nine: laho, id. Hawaii, 

Nuguria : laho, the testes in man and animal. Fotuna : raso, id. 

Tahiti : raho, pudendum muliebre. Maori : raho, the testicles. 
Ambrym: luho, testicles. Paama: hs'i, id. Malekula: lisi, 

erasi, rason, id. Bierian: loho, id. Malo: /a jo, id. Mota: 

lasoi, the male genitalia. 
Macassar: laso, penis. 
Arabic: h'isy', h'usy', h'usyat, h'usa', testicles. 

It is quite uncertain what was the primal sense of this stem. In Samoa, 
Tonga, and Nine it distinguishes the scrotum, and in Samoa the testes are 
designated by the name fua (360) fruit, to which Codrington assigns the 
root sense of anything globular. This use of fua extends into eastern 
Polynesia. Tahiti: hikd, testes. Marquesas: hiid, genitalia in general. 
Hawaii: hua, testes. Mangareva: ua, genitalia. 

In the area of Tongafiti colonization (Futuna therein inclusible) and in 
Melanesia wherever the word is identified, laso has passed definitely from 
the scrotum to its contents. In the latter subdivision Mota exhibits for 
laso the same comprehensiveness that fua exhibits in the Marquesas and 
Mangareva, if it be not too violent an interpretation of our vocabulary 
definitions to assume this to apply only to the male parts. The switch of 
sex in Tahiti raho is unexpected ; the entry is derived from Tregear's com- 



298 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

parative dictionary without opportunity to check his record by consul- 
tation of his original source ; in Bishop Jaussen's dictionary the word finds 
no entry. 

In Macassar the word passes to yet another part. 

The only resemblance which the Arabic bears to laso is that its forms 
also contain a modification of the radical i- as the second consonant, no 
sufficient proof of identity. 

253- 
ma, me, with, and. 

Samoa: wa, with, and. Tonga, Rotuma : wa, and. Futuna: mo, 

with. Nine: ma, and; mo, and, with. Uvea: mo, with. 

Tahiti: ma, and, with. Hawaii: we, with; a me, and. Rapa- 

nui, Marquesas : ma, and (in a particular numeral use) ; me, with. 

Mangareva: me, with, and. Paumotu: ma, together with ; me, 

with. Rarotonga: ma, and. Maori: mo, and; me, with, and. 

Nuguria, Aniwa : ma, and. Fotuna : ma, for, with, along with. 
Mota: ma, me, with, and. Santo: me, with: mo, and. Pala: ma, 

and, with. 
Malagasy: amana, with. 
Hebrew: 'im, with, and. Arabic: m,a', id. 

I can not do better in comment upon this item than to repeat the ana- 
lytic conclusions which I reached in an earlier study of root reducibility 
(27 American Journal of Philology, 389) : 

Let us now look at the root ma. In its paradeictic function we find it serving as a 
connective; it is the spoke that joins tire and hub into the effective unit of the wheel. 
It is the conjunction "and," yet its development is in a dual sense incomplete; it is 
available to connect words of the same grammatical function; it has not yet become 
sufficiently conjunctive to link clause with clause. At the same time another function, 
that which we know and employ as prepositional, exhibits in the sense of "with," "for" 
(for the sake of), thence differentiating to "from" and "on account of"; these different 
uses we in analytic speech find it necessary to distinguish by varying words; to the 
Samoan it is sufficiently clear to use ma and trust to inference from existing conditions 
to elucidate the character of the relation the existence of which is thereby indicated. 
Stated in terms coordinate with those employed in the preceding particulars of this 
series of roots, we may say of ma that it points to the non-ego and not-here and links it 
to the central concept of that which is active and present. 

In the elaboration of my theory of explanation in the paper from which 
the foregoing is extracted I dissected the central signification of the a and 
sketched out the coefficient value of the several consonantal modulants 
which might be prefixed thereto. In dealing according to that theory with 
the other forms associated in this item, me and mo, we should hold the 
consonantal value as carrying the linking, conjunctive, associating sense; the 
shade of variety in meaning would be found to exist as the nucleus of the 
e and of the respectively. 

254- 
manifenife, to be thin. 

Samoa, Nukuoro : manifinifi, thin. Tonga, Futuna : manifi, manifi- 

nifi, id. Uvea: manifi, id. Fotuna: mafinfini, id. 
Omba : manivinivi, thin. Mota : mamwvin, id. Baki : menivinim, id. 
Malekula : meniveniv, id. Malo : tanivinivi, id. Roro : nivinivi, 



DATA AND NOTES. 299 

id. Mekeo: mangipina, id. Galoma: magipi, id. Keapara: 
magivi, id. Kabadi: kevekeve,id. Galavi, Boniki: kavaka- 
vana, id. Taupota: wogevagevana, id. Awalama: wogewoge- 
wana, id. Wedau: avavana, id. 

Malagasy: manifi, thin. 

Arabic: nahifa, nahafat, nahif,' manhuf,' thin, slender. 

The word exists for us only as a composite, for the element ma is most 
clearly the prefix of condition which so frequently occurs ; the stem nifl is 
nowhere apparent, either independently or in other composition. Simple 
metathesis occurs in the Fotuna and Mota forms. The word is confined 
to the Proto-Samoan. The Malagasy identification is far better than is 
commonly the case with that speech. Macdonald's Semitic identification 
entails laparotomy of a syllable protected by its inner position. 

255. 
maso, mahi, to be cooked, done. 

Futuna: moso, cooked. Tonga: moho, cooked, ready to be eaten, 
rotten ; momoho, ripe, brown in color, ready to burst. Nine : 
moho, cooked, done; momoho, ripe, mature. Uvea: moho, 
cooked. 
Santo: mda, cooked. 

Malay: masak, cooked. Malagasy: masaka, id. 
Arabic: nas'iga, to be ripe, cooked. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is absent in Samoa, for the reason that Moso is 
the name of one of the great terrestrial gods. The mere suggestion of 
cookery, the plaiting in coconut leaves and the slinging on a pole like a 
pig ready for the oven, added the pitch of indignity to the Samoan ifonga 
or solemn rite of submission. It must therefore be clear that moso would 
never be permitted in the land where Moso was revered. How little Moso 
would put up with any such disgraceful kitchen verb in the very accents 
of his name may be inferred from one of the prayers addressed to him: 
"Oh, Moso, make haste, show thy power, send down to down-below-here, 
sweep them away like a flood, may they never see the light of another 
day!" Oh, no, it's not strange that moso does not mean cooked in Samoa. 
I can not accept Macdonald's Santo identification. This involves the 
dropping of s from the inner and protected position. This is not only 
objectionable in itself, but is contraindicated byai'zt (239) smoke Santo osun, 
and except as to position by hifo (206) down Santo siwo. 

The Malay and Malagasy may be sound ; in the dearth of other instances 
in that area we may not accept them definitely. 

Dr.Macdonald undoubtedly relies upon mahi, a dialectic form in Efatd and 
nowhere else found, and upon the k in the Malay and Malagasy, to bolster 
up his Semitic identification, which furthermore involves the m-n mutation. 
This is too much to rest upon premises so insufficiently established. 

256. 
meta, raw, unripe, crude, green. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Maori, Mangaia, Tongarewa, Rapanui, 
Mangareva: mata, raw, unripe. Hawaii: maka, id. Fotuna: 
mata, raw. Nuguria: oimata, raw; koimoto, unripe. 



300 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Aneit5aim: emetmat, raw, not dry or seasoned; mat, new, raw. 
Bierian: nmata, raw. Tanna: (t)e'mta, id. 

Macassar: mata, raw, unripe. Malay: matang, mantah, id. Mala- 
gasy: mania, id. 

Arabic : 'anut'a, to be raw. 

The dissimilant duplication of Aneityum emetmat establishes perfectly 
the unity of Efate meta and the mata which belongs to the Polynesian of 
both migrations. The other Melanesian forms are readily recognizable, and 
in Indonesia the series is confirmatory inter se. The Arabic is, of course, 
entitled to no consideration. 

257- 
miel, mimiel, red. 

Samoa: melomelo, memelo, red. Tonga: melo, melomelo, brown, 

ripe. Futuna: memelo, red. Hawaii: m,eomeo, omeomeo. 

red, orange, blushing. Mangareva : metometo, yellow, orange. 

Rarotonga : muramura, red. Bukabuka : kura melo, light red. 
Mota: mera, red light in morning or evening sky. Vaturanga: 

mera, yellow. Wango : m-eramera, red. Fagani : merameraga, id. 

Baravon : merdmere, id. Bugotu : mela, id. Buka : marara, id. 

Laur: mirik, id. Sesake: miala, id. 
Malay, Gah, Baju : merah, red, bay. Bouton : merdi, red. Awaiya : 

meranate, id. Salibabo: worawMto/i, id. Malagasy: mewa, id. 
Arabic: ma"ir', reddish; 'am"aru, of the color of red clay. 

In the Polynesian the stem is melo. Its appearance as meto in Mangareva 
is unusual, but not without the precedent of an l-t mutation. The Raro- 
tonga mula is a valuable transition form in respect of the final vowel, to 
link the Polynesian and the Melanesian. In the Bukabuka locution we find 
melo used in limitation of the more widely diffused word for red, kura. 

In Melanesia the stem is mera, with which mara in Buka marara is readily 
associable ; while Baravon meramere naturally leads to Laur mirik. 

In Indonesia also the stem is mera, both independently and in composi- 
tion, and mara also appears. Malagasy mena is more remote yet not 
improbable. 

We have yet to discuss two puzzling forms, Efate miel and Sesake miala, 
which are evidently in close consociation. If it were not for the intrusive * 
they would fall into ready alignment with the mela-mala stem of Melanesia, 
but in the present stage of our knowledge we are quite at a loss to account 
for the intrusion of the vowel. We may feel that these anomalous forms 
derive from the common stem, but we have no proof which we may bring 
to bear. The preduplicated Efate mimiel shows that the vowel i is no mere 
accident, but is regarded as an essential part of the syllable mi, and therefore 
structural. 

To bring our author's Semitic into alignment calls for the evisceration of 
an interior consonant, the strongest palatal at that and perfectly supported. 
Even if that were permissible, which is open to grave doubt, the Arabic 
ma"ir would be brought only imperfectly into likeness with no more stand- 
ard a form than the miel-miala which we have just seen to be wholly 
unaccountable deviations from regular stem forms. 



DATA AND NOTBS. 301 

258. 
mitaku, mataku, mitau, matau, to fear, to be afraid of. 

Niue: matakutaku, to fear; matakumataku, dreaded, inspiring fear. 
Maori : mataku, to fear, to be fearful, inspiring fear. Uvea, 
Fakaafo, Nukuoro, Aniwa, Fotuna,Vate, Rarotonga, Mangareva, 
Bukabuka, Manahiki: mataku, to fear. Rapanui: mataku, 
alarm, dread, fear. Samoa: mata'u, to fear, to be afraid. 
Tahiti: matau, fear, dread, to be in terror. Hawaii: makau, id. 
Marquesas: hadmetau, id. 
Sesake, Bierian: mataku, to be afraid of. Malo: matacu, id. Arag: 
matagu, id. Nggela : matagu, fear, to be afraid of; mamataguga, 
fearful. Belaga: matagu, to fear ; mamataguga, fearful. Mota 
Maligo : matagut, to be afraid of; tagut, to be startled. Fagani: 
maguta, afraid. Mota Maligo: matagtag, to fear. Motlav: 
metegteg, fear. Ambrym : matehag, to be frightened at. Vatu- 
ranga: matahuni, to fear; matdhu, fear. Malekula: metoh, id. 
Aneityum: i-mtac, afraid, timid, cowardly; imiimtac, to fear, 
to reverence. Suau, Tubetube : matausi, id. Dobu, Wedau : 
m,atauta,\6.. Omn:matautei,'vl. Sariba: mafoM.$'*,id. Tavara, 
Awalama:waioMto,id. Pokau:mafea'tt,id. Kabadi:wefeaw,id. 
King : matut, to fear. Tanna : meheker, id. Lemaroro : marau, 
afraid. Baki: merou, to fear. Tag^la: marode, id. 
Malay: takut, fear. Malagasy: tahutra, fear; matahutra, to fear, 

to be afraid. 
Arabic: taka', to fear; takiyyat, fear, caution. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is matakut, and it is not only in form a com- 
posite of the ma of condition with takut, but we have the stem preserved 
in independent existence in Mota Maligo, in Malay, and in Malagasy. In 
the Mota tagut to be startled, taken in conjunction with Uvea mataku a 
trembling with fear, we may find the primal sense of the stem, the quivering 
of the body in expectant poise to seek refuge in flight when some unwonted 
noise in the forest home has at last become identified with danger too 
overpowering to face. 

The final t has vanished except in Samoa objective aspect mata'utia,where. 
it is protected, in Mota Maligo matagut, and in the Indonesian forms. The 
stem vowel u remains in Mota Maligo, Sesake, Bierian, Malo, Arag, Nggela, 
Belaga, Fagani, Vaturanga. By abrasion of that vowel we find a new 
closed form in which the final stem syllable has disappeared ; Mota Maligo 
matagtag, Motlav, Malekula, Aneityum. The following irregularities call 
for comment. In Nggela and Belaga occur forms involving the duplication 
of the conditional ma; this is of very rare occurrence and may perhaps 
argue that the mataku stem was so archaic that the recollection was lost 
that this was the ma of condition. This mamatagu in these two Solomon 
Island languages may be understood as introducing a ^ in the stem /-place ; 
Ambrym m,atehag seems to do the same ; Vaturanga matahuni has an n in 
that place. We have not sufiicient information as to these languages to 
warrant venturing an opinion as to whether these are mutations of the 
stem consonant or local devices of word formation. I have refrained from 
including Aneityum imiimtac with mamatagu as duplication of the condi- 



302 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

tional prefix, for we recognize in tint a verb-formative prefix of a causative 
value. Fagani maguta is metathetic from the neighboring Bugotu matagu. 
To associate King tnatut with the matakut stem involves the extirpation of 
an inner and therefore abundantly protected syllable, a syllable of a type 
(ak) to class which as a syllable would be doing violence to the whole 
structure of the Polynesian word ; furthermore I can find in the brief King 
vocabulary no other word of Polynesian resemblance which depends upon 
such a procedure. Against these valid objections we raise in support of 
matut only its resemblance. Tanna meheker is another case of resemblance. 
These resemblances are by no means without their value. On the theory 
that the Polynesian content of Melanesian is loan material we should expect 
to find for many words no more than the ghost and echo. On a far higher 
culture plane it is notorious that Hodge, when he marries according to the 
ordinances of the Church of England as by law established, solemnly avers 
"with all my worldly goods I thee and thou," the echo of a word of his 
native language. 

To establish Lemaroro marau and Baki merou as even a resemblance it 
will be necessary to maintain the t-r mutation ; this is found in our material 
four times: in fatu (294) stone Malekula var, talinga (350) ear Malekula 
Pangkumu riringa, ate (276) liver Malekula Uripiv ere, futi (329) banana 
Moanus nibur. If this be considered sufiiciently well established we find 
in marau a variant of the Efate matau, a reduced form involving the loss 
of the k, which nowhere else appears until we encounter it ultimately in 
extreme eastern Pol5mesia. 

The Indonesian identifications have already been mentioned as preserv- 
ing the primal stem. 

In the Semitic offered for our consideration the verb has a partial resem- 
blance to the takut stem, the t being represented by a palatal. The resem- 
blance of the noun is more specious than real, for it is hard to see why, when 
there is already a verb or bare stem, we are to accept an almost inflected 
form as a noun to enter upon a new course of activity in the Pacific as a 
verb. 

. V, 259. 

nabati, tooth. 

Samoa, Tonga, Nine, Futuna, Uvea, Fakaafo, Fotuna, Vat^, Moiki : 
nifo, a tooth. Nukuoro, Aniwa, Maori, Tahiti, Hawaii, Mar- 
quesas, Mangareva, Manahiki, Rapanui, Paumotu: niho, id. 
Sikayana: m/c/jo, id. Mangaia, Rarotonga: mo, id. Nuguria: 
ngiho, id. 
Ulawa, Saa, Bululaha : niho, tooth. Buka: niho, liho,Hhon,uliho, id. 
Lifu: nyo, id. lai: niou, id. Fagani: lifo, id. Alite, 
Vaturanga, Nggela, Bierian, Epi: livo, id. Arag: liwo, id. 
Mota, Maewo: liwoi, id. Motlav: lewo, ne-lwo, id. Ugi, 
Bougainville: liho, id. Wango: riho, id. Mukawa: nibo, id. 
Awalama: mt/;o, id. Tavara: nmit/o, id. Taupota, Wedau: 
ivo, id. Roro: nihena, id. Kabadi: nise, id. Pala: ngise, id. 
Motu: hise, id. Mekeo: wt'c, id. Fokau: nike, id. Doura: 
ike, id. Vni: igeo, id. Galavi, Boniki: ofee, id. Panaieti: 
ni, id. Tubetube, Misima: nini, id. Tagula: nungi, id. 
Makekula: ribo, id. 



DATA AND NOTES. 303 

Matabello: nifoa, tooth. Saparua: nio, id. Malagasy: nify, id. 
Guam: nifin, id. Manatolo, Sula : nihi,\A. Bouton: ntchi, id. 
East Vaiqueno: nissy, id. West Brissi: nissin, id. Save: 
nuhsi, id. ILisa,: nihan, id. 'Ka.y sm : kni pan, id. Magindano: 
nipun, id. Tagalog: ngipin, id. 
Arabic: nab', nubub', tooth. 
Dr. Macdonald does record that this is bati (39) with the article, and he 
does set it down that Polynesian nifo is "another word for tooth, teeth," 
and he includes his Semitic within the same brackets as the lower set of 
these teeth. But why does he collate the nifo material with this nabati if, 
despite his protestations, he did not think it added to his Semitic scheme? 
The w-form which holds without exception through Polynesia is found in 
the western Pacific only in Ulawa, Saa, Bululaha, and Buka, stages in the 
northern Solomons on the Samoa track, and in Lifu and lai at the extreme 
south, the terminus of a migration concerning which Codrington notes 
(Melanesian I^anguages, 17) "more archaic they well may be, belonging to an 
earlier movement of population, carried forwards by an earlier wave of 
speech passing onwards among the islands, but having somewhere a com- 
mon origin with those which have since and successively passed among 
them." Yet in the instance of this word we observe as a curious fact that 
they most closely resemble Mangaia and Raro tonga of the Tongafiti swarm, 
known to be the most modem of the successive waves of the speech. 

Buka with its niho and liho is the sure identification of the transition 
phase of the passage to the /-forms which are so characteristic of Melanesia. 
These forms differ in the second consonant from the primal / in Fagani lifo 
and the immediately proximate h in Ugi and Bougainville liho and Wango 
riho, all these in the Solomon Island crop colonies of the Samoa track ; up 
the labial column to v in Alite, Vaturanga, Nggela, Bierian and Epi (if this 
be not a reference to the Bierian) ; thence to the semivowel approximating 
the labials, w, in Mota, Motlav, and Maewo; finally down the column to 
b in Malekula ribo. So far, in all Polynesia and in all Melanesia, the two 
vowels have remained unaltered in quality and fixed in position. 

When we examine the Indonesian retention of the nifo stem we shall find 
but one of the four elements of the word which has been treated with care, 
namely, the former vowel, which preserves its place unaltered in all except 
Savo. Matabello alone has nifo and has added a decoration of its own; 
Saparua has the form which we have seen in the Loyalties and in Mangaia 
and Raro tonga. There are here no /-forms ; the n is found intact in Mata- 
bello, Saparua, Malagasy, Guam, Manatolo, Sula, Bouton, East Vaiqueno, 
West Brissi, Savo, Kisa, Magindano ; in Kayan it is prefaced by a palatal, 
and in Tagalog it has become the palatal of its own group. The second 
consonant is kept as / in Matabello, Malagasy, Guam. It becomes h only 
in Manatolo, Sula, and Kisa, and in Bouton nichi it follows the same change 
as in Sikayanamfc/jo. It passes irregularly to s in East Vaiqueno and West 
Brissi, and to a gruffer sibilant in Savo. This mutation we explain as 
meaning that the first change is to an aspirate lying close to the labial posi- 
tion of the buccal organs; then that the mouth can not hold in this position 
so amorphous a sound as this aspirate; that the aspirates lying near all 
three series tend to assume the position of the central, or lingual, aspirate; 



304 THE POI^YNBSIAN WANDERINGS. 

thence easily pass into the sibilant, regardless of the source from which the 
aspirate derived. In eastern Indonesia the mutation down the column to 
the p of Kayan, Magindano and Tagalog correlates the b form in Malekula. 
The final vowel, o in Matabello and Saparua only, is i in Malagasy, Guam, 
and all the rest save only Kisa and Kayan, in which it becomes a, and in 
Magindano which has u. An ephelkustic n is found in Guam, West Brissi, 
Kisa, Kayan, Magindano, and Tagalog. 

To bring the Arabic in nab' into identity with the nifo stem requires but 
the establishment of the following laws of mutation: 

(i) That a shall pass into * without a vestige of transition form. 

(2) That b shall represent / against the universal practice of the Poly- 
nesian users of the word, and the occurrence of this change among the less 
careful Melanesians and Indonesians only in a single instance among the 
former and but three times among the latter. 

(3) That a final palatal, a strong guttural, shall drop oflf unnoticed. 

(4) That an strong enough to hold throughout the Pacific area and to 
be represented by some substitute in all of Indonesia shall be acquired 
somewhere and somehow. 

The initial n, however, withstands all hostile assault ; it is there in the 
Semitic. 

ra na, a branch. 

Samoa: la, a branch of a tree; laid, small branches. Nukuoro: 
la te manu, a branch. Nine: la, laid (plural), branch of a 
tree. Hawaii: lala, limb or branch. Futuna: lad, branch. 
Maori: rara, a twig, a small branch. Tahiti: rara, a branchy 
ara, small twigs or branches. Rarotonga, Mangareva : rara^ 
branch. Fotuna: ra, id. 
Sesake: ndara, a hranch. Aneitytim: in-r an, id. Bierian: to, id. 
Malay: daan, a branch. Malagasy: rahana, rahaka, id. 
Arabic : s'agnat, s'agan', a branch. 
The Polynesian stem is found in Efate, Aneityum and Bierian, and in 
Malagasy. In all this range we find no transition forms to account for the 
d which occurs in Sesake and in Malay. Yet an l-t mutation is by no means, 
unknown; in fact it occurs in the next item. 

I fail to see on what score, even of mere resemblance, it is sought to 
include this Semitic. 

ral, re, the forehead, aspect, face. 

Samoa: lae, the part between lip and chin without hair; ta'alaelae, 
a wide or bald forehead, a beardless chin. Tonga, Futuna, 
Uvea, Nuguria, Hawaii : lae, the brow, the forehead. Sikayana : 
moalae, id. Niue: le, matale, muale, id. Maori, Tahiti, 
Paumotu, Rarotonga : rae, id. Mangareva: raewato, the face, 
the countenance; akarae, to cut the hair on the forehead; korae, 
to cut the hair of women on the forehead; akakorae, to cut the 
ends of the hair short behind. Rapanui : korae, the brow. 

Nguna : rae, the front. Malo : rai, forehead. 

Malay, Matu : dai, the brow, the forehead. Java : rai, id. 

Ethiopic : rey, the sight, aspect. 



DATA AND NOTES. 305 

The stem signification relates to something which, by being clear, comes 
into prominence from out of its surroundings. This we see from the refer- 
ences to the hair in Samoa and in Mangareva. In Niue matale and Ma- 
ngareva raemata we have the same two elements ; the meaning is the clear 
spot of the face, and in a people so bushily bearded as are the men of Niue 
this must be localized upon the brow so long as the primal significations per- 
sist. In Niue and Sikayana we find in muale and moalae composites which 
define the forehead as the bare spot in front. The town green, malae (315), 
is in form a conditional derivative of this stem. The sense is equally 
clear, for the malae is distinctly a place clear of growth and of the habita- 
tions of men; it must be clear in order to fit it to be the stage of the public 
activities of the simple island life. 

The Melanesian identifications are satisfactory, but in the brevity of our 
vocabulary material we have no means of knowing if aught of the primary 
sense here persists. The alternative Efat6 re finds a parallel in Niue le, 
the change of ae to e being notably common in the latter tongue (17 Journal 
of the Poljmesian Society, 91). 

The Indonesian identifications, though few, are found in the strongest 
languages of that area and are acceptable, continuing from the preceding 
item the note as to l-t mutation. 

The Semitic proposed is at least in form a resemblance, but the sense is 
widely remote from the stem signification of lae. 

262. 

rau, rarau, to grope for with the hand, to seize, to snatch out or away. 
Tonga: lau, lalau, lauji, to pinch with the fingers, to nip. Hawaii: 

lau, to feel after a thing; lalau, to extend (as the hand), to 

seize, to catch hold of. 
Mota: rau, to thrust the hand into a bag; vaun, to thrust in the 

hand and take out something. Aneit)mm: rap, raprap, to 

grope for. 
Malay: rata, to feel for, to grope; rawa, to handle. 
Arabic : lamaa, to feel for, to grope, to take away. 

It is by no means certain that Tonga lau is herewith correlated, for in that 
the sense is particularly to nip and in the Efate, Mota, and Hawaii to grope 
for and take hold of. The Tonga stem is laut, and this does not elsewhere 
appear. In Mota raun it is explained that w is a suffix to make verbs defin- 
itely transitive; yet, as no less than seven of the Mota consonants are 
stated to be thus employed indifferently, I incline to view this n as radical, 
the stem being laun. 

Aneityiim rap involves a most infrequent mutation from the vowel u to 
the labial mute. The sense is satisfactory, but this change is not to be 
accepted until a better knowledge of this crabbed tongue shows this muta- 
tion to be normal though violent. 

The same consideration casts grave doubt upon the validity of the Malay 
raba. 

Of course the Arabic lamaa is too remote for attention. 



306 TH^ POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

263. 
soa (saisai), so, companion, follower, especially of the opposite sex. 

Samoa, Futuna: soa, friend, fellow, companion. Ticopia: soa, 
friend. Sikayana: ^oj'oa, id. Nuguria: /?awoa, id. Maori: 
hoa, a friend, a mate ; hoahoa, a spouse. Tonga, Tahiti, Hawaii, 
Marquesas, Rapanui, Paumotu: hoa, friend, fellow, companion. 
Mangareva: hoa, oa, id. Raro tonga: oa, id. Fotuna: soa, 
brother's brother, sister's sister. Nukuoro : soa, soka, a friend. 
Bierian: o^oa, wife, husband. Baki: koa, id. Mota: i-oat, member, 

component part of an organic whole. 
Kayan : hawa, a wife. 
Arabic: s'ai', an associate, follower. 
Dr. Macdonald associates sod and so with saisai to assemble, with less 
attention to the eytmology of Bfate than to the Semitic with which he 
wishes to affiliate it. 

The sex idea is widely extended; in Ffate, Maori, Bierian, Baki, and 
Kayan the opposite sexes, distinct statement of the same sexes only in 
Fotuna. In Nukuoro the intrusion of k in the alternative form soka is not 
understood. In Baki koa the change from fe to fe is so violent, particularly 
when it is recalled that the small island of Epi is the home both of Baki 
and Bierian, that we suspect the not unnatural error of a printer in reading 
foreign manuscript. 

Without cognate forms in Indonesia we may neither quite accept nor 
wholly reject the Kayan word. 

The Arabic is greatly in need of proof before it can be accepted. 

264. 
song i, sung i, sum i, to kiss. 

Samoa: i'ow^*, to rub noses, to salute ; songisongi, to smell. Futuna, 
Nukuoro: songi, to kiss. Tonga: hongi, to smell, to sniff. 
Nine: hongi, hohongi, honungi, id. Uvea: hongi, hohongi, id. 
Rapanui: hongi, to kiss, to smell; hongihongi, joy. Paumotu, 
Tongarewa: hongi, to rub noses, to kiss. Marquesas: honi, 
hoki, to kiss, to smell. Hawaii: honi, id. Raro tonga, 
Mangareva: ongi, to smell, to kiss, to salute by rubbing noses. 
Tahiti: hoi, hohoi, id. 
Lambell : isong, to smell. King: sangopi, id. Aneityum : aijumnyi, 
to kiss. Maewo: cf. mbunimbuni, mbunimbunisi, to smell, 
to kiss. 
Malay : chyum, to smell, to kiss. 
• Bthiopic : sa'ama, to kiss. Arabic : s'amma, to smell (there is no 

trace of this meaning in Ef ate) . 
The Proto-Samoan stem is songit. 

Outside of Efate we do not recognize this stem in Melanesia until we 
reach the New Ireland coast at the east gate of migration. The Maewo 
forms noted are quite irreconcilable with this stem even in abrasion, and 
the Aneityum word is more a puzzle than a comparable form. The Lambell 
isong is clearly homogenetic. King is in geography and speech so close to 
Lambell that we have no doubt in the recognition of sang- in sangopi, but 



DATA AND NOT^S. 307 

the language is yet so little known that we can not explain the change of 
vowel or the latter member of the composite. 

The Malay is not at all to be considered . It seems to me thatDr. Macdonald 
has brought in the Aneityum and the Malay to establish a chain running 
sungi-sumi-aijumnyi-chyum-s'amina. Inasmuch as there is no strength in 
the inner links the chain scarcely supports the Semitic load. 

265. 
suma, uma, himwa, house. 

Maori: ruma, a room, an apartment. 

The following words mean house : 

Duke of York, Motu, Uni, Doura, Kabadi : ruma. Wango : rumwa. 
Lambell, Lamassa : rttmai. New Guinea, Laur: mm. Buka: 
luma, aluma, lumu. Bougainville, Alite, Ugi, Uni, Pokau: 
luma. lai, Epi, Rubi: uma. Lifu, Uea: uuma. I,akon: 
umwa. Waigiou, Moanus : it7TO. Tubetube: ywma, id. Treas- 
ury Island, Sinaugoro, Hula, Keapara, Galoma, Suau, Sariba, 
Tavara, Awalama, Taupota, Wedau, Galavi, Boniki: numa. 
Saa: numwe. Tuhetuhe: numi, id. 'Pagani : rima. Ulawa, 
Bululaha : mmwa. Tangoan Santo, Ambrym: ma. Bromanga: 
imo. Aneityum: im. Mota, Arag: imwa. Deni, Nengone: 
mwa. Merlav, Mosin : mw. 'L/O-.emwa. Motlav, Volow : emw. 
Norbarbar, Pak, I^eon : ew^. Makura: wa-in^ma. Aneityum: 
neom,, niim. 

Malay, Baju, Liang, Lariko: rumah. Matabello: oruma. Kisa: 
rome. Amblaw : lumah. Cajeli, Caimarian : luma. Gah : lume. 
Mayapo : humah. Java : humah, uma. Teluti, Nikunau : uma. 

Arabic: h'a'mat, h'im,', house. 

Tregear is by no means convinced that Maori ruma is not the borrowing 
of the English room. Since the word does not anywhere else enter the 
Polynesian area I prefer to let our best Melanesian authority argue the 
case for his client. I cite herewith Codrington's highly interesting note 
(Melanesian Languages, 77) : 

This is an interesting and important word. The very wide range of the word, which 
in Malay is ruma, and the great variety of its forms point to the great antiquity of this 
as a common possession of these languages. As is the case with the very widely pre- 
vailing name for a canoe, we may argue that a word which has spread so far and changed 
so much goes to show that the thing which it names was known to the undivided people 
whose dispersion spread the word so widely abroad. If the presence of certain common 
words in Aryan languages shows that the Aryans did not separate till certain arts were 
known and practised by the common ancestors, so we may argue that the ocean lan- 
guages testify that the ancient speakers made canoes, built houses, cultivated gardens, 
before the time came when their posterity branched off on their way to Madagascar 
and Fiji. 

The word now immediately in view as the name of a house ranges from the Malay 
Peninsula, through the islands of the Indian Archipelago, to the very extremity of 
Melanesia in the Loyalty Islands. It has not a continuous range, it appears and dis- 
appears at intervals, but in that line and chain of islands it is never absent long. It 
appears in Mafoor at the northwest of New Guinea, and in Motu at the southeast, and 
in the Marshall Islands of Micronesia. In Polynesian languages it does not appear; 
in the Kingsmill it is im. The fact that the word has in this way established itself 



308 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

generally, but not universally, at intervals, and not in a continuous line, shows that 
it is not one which can be traced to one center, from whence it may be thought to have 
been introduced by commerce or modern intercourse. The same conclusion is enforced 
by the consideration of the great variety of the form of the word, which ranges from 
ruma to eng. If a word appearing in its full form in Malay were to appear corrupted 
and changed as it receded in distance from the region in which Malay is spoken, we might 
well suppose the Malay the original. But when the changes in form bear no certain 
relation to the distance from Malayan regions, and the variations are local and discon- 
nected, it is not so; some center there must have been, but it can not now be pointed out. 
The geographical range of the word^must be observed by comparing the vocabularies 
with the map. The variation of the form can be seen in the vocabularies. In Mr. 
Wallace's list the Malay rumak and the Javanese umah give at once typical forms, one 
with and the other without an initial consonant. Of the first type there are also luma 
and huma, of the second um and probably om. (The Ceram word feiom, used by 
Alfuros, is probably om, a form of uma, with the collective prefix fei, Fiji vei.) Out of 
thirty-three words twenty-two are forms of these types. The variety of forms in 
Melanesia is greater, but the types are the same; ruma is in Duke of York and San 
Cristoval, uma in Api and Lakona. The vowel also changes, and ruma, with changes 
of initial consonant and vowel, becomes luma, nume, hum,a, rima, nim,a. By similar 
change uma becomes ima, ema, and dropping the vowels at the beginning or end, 'ma, 
im, eom, em, eng. To account for this last change it is enough to say that, in the 
neighborhood where it is made at any rate, the m is the nasal one which, as mentioned 
above, regularly changes into ng; ima, im, makes eng, as lima "a hand" makes Fiji 
linga, Maori ringa. This m in Nengone is written 'm,, and the Nengone 'ma is identical 
with the Santa Cruz mwa. 

It will be noticed that Bfate has three forms, all more or less remote from 
the primal stem. Suma is found nowhere else, this being the only language 
in which the word has initial s. Himwa, so far as the initial is concerned, 
seems to be a transition form leading to the general imwa-ima of the north- 
ern New Hebrides. Uma is found in Kpi and the distant Loyalties. 

As to the Arabic I venture the suggestion that it taxes philological prin- 
ciples far less to present its affiliation with the German Heimath and Heim. 

266. 
tanu-mi, tanu-maki, to cover with earth, to put into the ground; tan i, 
tun i, to earth it, to cover with earth and then with anything ; 
tano, tan, earth of any kind, soil, clay, ground. 
Samoa : tanu, to bury, to pave ; tanufale, to cover a house with coco- 
nut leaves in a storm; tanuma'i, to cover up with. Tonga: 
tanu, tanua, to bury, to conceal, to hide ; tanuanga, a burial place ; 
tanuma, to bury the dead by numbers; tanumaki, to earth up 
any plant or tree, to hoe, to cover up; tanumia, to be buried 
by falling of earth ddbris ; tanutanu, to bury, to cover over with 
earth ; tano, a burial place. Futuna : tanu, to bury, to inhume, 
to cover with earth ; tanuma, a tomb, ditch, trench. Nuguria : 
tanu, to bury; taruma (9 tanuma), a grave. Niue: tanu, to 
bury, to cover up. Uvea: tanu, to hnry; tanuma, tano, cemt- 
tery, sepulcher ; tanumanga, a pit. Maori : tanu, to bury, to 

plant, to fill up. Tahiti : tanu, to plant, to bury. Mangaia : 
tanu, to plant. Mauke: tanu, to bury. Rapanui: tanu, to 
hide, to conceal, to plant ; tangata tanu kai, a cultivator. Man- 
gareva : tanu, to plant, to bury, to inhume. Paumotu : tanu, 
to cultivate. Fotuna : no-tanu, no-tanumia, to bury. Hawaii : 
kanu, to bury, to cover up in the earth. 



DATA AND NOTKS. 309 

Mota: tano, ground; tanu, to bury with earth. Maewo, Nguna: 
tano, ground. Malo: tanomia, to bury. Kabadi: kano, 
land. Deni: tw/awo, ground. Saa: 'ano,id. Tanna:/awa, 
land; {t)anum, to bury. Tarawa: tan, id. Ambrym: tan, 
ground. Aneityum: in-tan, id. Lo: ten, id. Laur, Lambell, 
Lamassa: tun, a grave. King: nutun, id. 

Malay: tanam, tanuman, to bury, to inter, to plant. Basakrama: 
tanam, id. Malay: tdnah, land. 

Arabic: tana, to cover with clay; tino, tano, earth, clay. 

After defining tanumi and tan as burial with a covering of earth Dr. 
Macdonald says boldly "hence" and proceeds to join therewith tano-tan, 
earth, soil, ground. 

We have clearly two distinct stems mingled here. 

That which means the ground does not at all appear in Polynesia. In 
Melanesia it is tano, ndano, kano, 'ana, tana, tan, ten. In Indonesia we find 
Malay tanah land. With this stem the Arabic certainly has an identity of 
form and of sense. 

The stem signifying to bury is in the Proto-Samoan tanum, and the radi- 
cal m holds in Polynesia almost without exception when under the protec- 
tion of a succeeding vowel. This radical m is found in two instances in 
Melanesia and it persists in Indonesia. The stem in use in Polynesia is 
tanu, but in Tonga and Uvea tano is found along with tanu. Similarly 
in Malo we find tano, but with the radical m to fix the word. It would seem, 
therefore, that in these instances abraded tanum and tano have been con- 
fused. The Bfate tun to bury is confirmatory of the New Ireland grave 
words tun and nutun. With the tanum stem the Semitic proposed is in 
no great accord. 

This word has been exhaustively examined in the inner record of its 
structure in my paper on root reducibility (27 American Journal of Phi- 
lology, 383). 

267. 

tau, a season, time, year. 

Samoa : tau, a season, a year; tausanga, a season, a year of six months. 
Tonga: ta'u, a season, a crop, a year; ta'ube, annual. Futuna: 
tau, season for planting and particularly for yams. Uvea: tau, 
era ; tau, year. Nine : tau, a year, a season. Maori : tau, a 
year. Tahiti, Rarotonga: tau, a season. Marquesas: tau, 
a year (of ten months). Rapanui: tau, a year, a season. 
Mangareva : tau, a year, the season of the breadfruit. Paumotu : 
tau, a season, a period. Nukuoro : tau, ngatau, a year. Aniwa : 
tou, a year. Hawaii: kau, a season, the summer or warm 
season, a lifetime. 

Mota : tau, a season. New Britain : taun, a year. 

Java, Sulu: tahun, a year. Matu: ta'un, id. Ilocan: taoen, id. 
Tagalog: toon, id. Bugi: taung, id. Macassar: taoeng, id. 
Malagasy: taona, a year, a time, a season. 

Arabic: zaman, a year. Syriac: ziban, id. Modern Syriac: 
zona, id. 



310 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The Samoan tausanga seems to suggest a taus stem. This can not further 
be recognized in Polynesia; therefore we are not justified in putting it 
forward adversely to the taun stem which appears in all the Indonesian 
identifications and in Melanesia is found in New Britain. 

The Semitic is impossible except Modern Syriac zona, and that is but a 
partial resemblance. 

268. 

telei, talai, the ancient axe or adze- like axe (a shell). 

Samoa : talai, to adze. Tonga : talai, to smooth off rough edges. 
Futuna: talai, to cut off knots or thorns. Niue: toki talai, 
an adze. Maori: tarai, tarei, to chop or smooth as with an 
adze. Tahiti: tarai, to chop or adze a piece of timber; toi 
tarai, an adze. Mangaia : tarai, to adze, to hew. Mangareva : 
tarai, to rough hew. Paumotu : tarai, to cut, to hew. Hawaii : 
kalai, id. Marquesas : tadi, to smooth with an axe or tool. 

Motu: talai, to chop. Mota: tara, to hew, chop, cut. Merlav: 
tar a, to cut. Massim: tara, to cut off. Gog: tar, to cut. 
Volow: ter, id. Aneityiim: inpas aterei, adze. 

Malay: charai, to part, to separate. 

Arabic : s'araha, to cut, to sUce, to carve, to dissect. 

This stem is readily identified as homogenetic in Polynesia and Mela- 
nesia, and it preserves the verb-formative * as far away as Motu. The 
undoubtedly earlier verb tara exists in Mota and Merlav, and has undergone 
terminal abrasion in Gog and Volow. In the Aneityum locution aterei has 
altogether the appearance of identity with talai; but Inglis in his vocabu- 
lary of that language defines the word : aterei, crooked, bent ; inpas aterei, 
an adze. Inference should not be allowed to outbalance the record of the 
reporter; therefore we leave the matter open pending further research in 
the field. 

In the Malay charai we find a change of initial t which is not wholly 
without precedent, but of far greater moment is the change of sense ; the 
identification is, therefore, doubtful. 

The Semitic is remote from talai both in form and in sense. 

269. 
toki, an axe; tok, violence, force. 

Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea, Nukuoro, Fotuna, Mangaia, Marquesas: 
toki, an axe, a hatchet. Maori, Mangareva : toki, an axe, an 
adze, or similar tool. Tongarewa: toki, an adze. Rapanui: 
toki, a stone axe. Nuguria: toki, a shell axe. Paumotu: 
toki, to hit, strike, drive in, the edge of tools. Samoa: to'i, 
a hatchet. Tahiti : toi, a hatchet or tomahawk. Hawaii: 
koi, a small adze. 

Duke of York: torki, toki, to cut or lance, to cut out a spear point. 
Mota: toto, totogag, to chop. Aneityum: cf. etuko, to split 
wood. 

Baliyon : tuk, to chop. 

Arabic : takka, to cut. Hebrew : tok, violence. 



DATA AND NOTES. 311 

The Efat6 tok violence is visible nowhere within the horizon of our studies, 
and is suspicious in view of its positive resemblance to Hebrew tok violence. 

In Polynesia we find no variation from the axe signification except in 
the Paumotu, which in many particulars represents a very primitive type 
of the language. The Paumotu meanings make it possible to accept with- 
out hesitation the Duke of York signification, which is not readily associable 
with a hatchet sense. 

The second form in Mota totogag, of which ag is recognized as a verb 
definitive suffix, yields us an abraded form tog, which undergoes yet further 
abrasion into toto. The Aneityum etuko is, like most of the identifications 
in that obscure speech, by no means distinctly established. 

We meet the stem but once in Indonesia, an abraded form as in Mota 
and with a vowel change like that in Aneityum. 

The Arabic is a resemblance ; more, however, to the eye than to the ear, 
for when spoken the triliteral is at once apparent. 

270. 

tuai, tuei, old, ancient, long ago, a long time hereafter; bakatuai, to pro- 
long, to put off, to delay. 

Samoa: tuai, former, olden, to be a long time; tuatuai, somewhat 
long, to delay; fa'atuai, to prolong, to put off, to defer, to 
delay. Tonga: tuai, delay, procrastination, slow, dilatory, 
to be long, to defer; fakatuai, fakatuotuai, to linger, to delay, 
to defer, to procrastinate, to protract. Nine : tuai, old, ancient ; 
fakatuai, slow. Uvea : tuai, to delay, to loiter. Nukuoro : 
tuai, ancient. Aniwa, Vatd: tuai, old. Rapanui: tuhai, 
old, ancient. 

Eromanga: itetuai, of old; etuai, some time ago. Sesake: tuxii, 
formerly. Mota: /mo*, old times. Bierian: ?Moi, long ago. 
Malo: tuai, old. Malekula: /we, old. Aneityum: itu,o\A, 
former. Baravon: kua, old. Pak: 'ue, id. 

Malay: tuivah, old. Java: tuwa, id. 

Arabic: 'adiyy', old, ancient. 

It seems that here we are dealing with a ^wa stem of which, with conditional 
ma, matua (216) may be a derivative. That the stem really is tua, and i 
but the definitive suffix, appears in the duplicated Tonga faka-tuotuai. 

In tracing the stem in Melanesia we find in Eromanga and Aneityum pre- 
fixes of uncertain value. Most of the identifications in the western Pacific 
maintain the full tuai form. Absence of the definitive suffix is found in 
Baravon, if we accept the t-k mutation despite the fact that this is its only 
appearance among eight cases of t found in our material, and in Malekula. 
In this group belongs Pak 'ue, for it is characteristic of that tiny speech 
to throw out t. The last stage of abrasion is found in Aneitjmm i-tu. 

The Indonesian identifications are scanty but valid. 

The Polynesian has a i in tuni; a Semitic word meaning old has been 
found which has a d in it somewhere. Another link has been forged in the 
chain of Semitic origins. 



312 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

271. 

un, a fish scale. 

Samoa : una, a scale of a fish, a plate of tortoise shell ; unafi, to scale 
a fish. Futuna: mtco, tortoise shell ; unafi, &sh. scale. Niue: 
una, tortoise shell; hinafi, fish scale. Maori, Marquesas, 

Rapanui, Mangareva: unahi, fish scale. Tahiti, Marquesas, 
Paumotu : unahi, to scale a fish. Hawaii : una, tortoise shell ; 
unahi, fish scale. Tonga: uno, fish scale, tortoise shell. 
Uvea: mwo, fish scale. Fotuna: ano-na-unafi, id. Nuguria: 
unafi, id. 

Motu: una, fish scale; unahia, to scale a fish. Aneityum: ninihen, 
fish scale. 

Malay: unus, to pull out. 

Hebrew: halas, to pull out, to pull off. Arabic: h'ala'a, id. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is unaf . In general these closed stems are better 
preserved in the Proto-Samoan migration than in the Tongafiti; here, 
however, the strong stem oddly appears where least it would be expected. 
Unafi is in form a verb ; the verb-formative suffix i is added to the simple 
stem. In Samoa and Motu unafi is a verb and distinct from the noun, in 
which the final consonant has been abraded ; in Maori, Mangareva, Futuna, 
Niue, Fotuna, and Hawaii unafi is the noun and una is either absent or else 
specialized to mean one of the plates in a head of turtle ; in the Marquesas 
it is both noun and verb. 

The only phonetic variants in the Polynesian are these: in Niue the 
frontal accretion by an aspirate, this seeming to be sporadic, since a primal 
aspiration in the stem would have been represented in other languages 
of the stock in some mutation form ; in the same speech the change of u to 
i, a change which we shall find again only in Aneityum ; in Tonga and Uvea 
the change of a to in the second vowel. 

In Motu, that very remote colony of the swarm which left Indonesia by 
the southern gate, we find noun and verb used exactly as in Samoa. The 
only other identification which Melanesia has afforded us is n-inihe-n of 
Aneityum. In this the initial n is clearly the article ; the final n is observed 
upon a great many noun stems which end in a vowel. For the initial vowel 
of inihe we have already observed a precedent in Niue. The mutation f-h 
is common in Polynesia and we have several instances of its occurrence in 
Aneityum. 

The Malay identification is not only presented as fact by Macdonald,but 
has also received very respectful consideration by Tregear, who is by no 
means cordially disposed to the Malayo-Polynesian theory. Yet to accept 
this identification requires us to assume the equivalence of unaf and unus, 
an assumption far too violent to be satisfactory; and then in addition to 
disregard the fact that in the sense of the Malay unus to pull out Samoa has 
unusi, Tonga has unuhi and so have several of the Tongafiti languages. 

About the only point of identity upon which the Semitic could be hung 
is the final >$• in Malay unus. Now that that is removed from consideration 
the Hebrew can show no resemblance. 



DATA AND NOTES. 313 

EFATE-MEI.ANESIAN-VITI-POLYNESIAN-MAIvAY-SEMITIC. 

272. 

abu, afu, au, ashes ; abuabu, af uafu, to be dusty, to fly in the air (dust) ; 
Hbu, lifu, to be ashy, ash-colored, dirty or covered with ashes, 
as in mourning for the dead; mafu, a thick vapor Hke dust, 
uncleanness (ritual) which makes the sight dim. 
efu. 

Samoa: efu, efuefu, dust, to become dust. Tonga: efu, dust; 
efuefu, ashes; efuhia, dusty, covered with dust; fakaefu, to 
raise a dust; maefu, dust; ngaehu, muddy, turbid. Futuna: 
efu, dust in general. Niue : efu, efuefu, dust; efuefu-afi, ashes. 
Uvea: efu, ashes; efuefu, dust. Marquesas: ehu, fragments, 
to fall in particles ; ehu ahi, ashes ; ehuehu, twilight of morning 
and evening. Maori: ehu, turbid, mist. Tahiti: ehu, dis- 
colored, muddy. Hawaii : ehu, spray, steam ; ehuehu, darkness 
arising from dust, fog or vapor ; kuehu, to shake the dust from 
a mat. Mangareva: ehu, dust, ashes. Rapanui: ehu, fire- 
brand, ashes. 

lefu. 

Samoa : lefu, ashes ; lelefu, to be burnt to ashes ; fa'alelefu, to reduce 
to ashes. Niue: polefu, mist, fog. Futuna: lefu, ashes 
slacked in water for dressing the hair. Uvea: lefulefu, ashes. 
Nukuoro: lefu, ashes; rehu, dust. Nuguria: lehulehu, ashes. 
Hawaii: lehu, ashes; lelehu, to see with difficulty, to become 
blind. Maori: rehu, mist; pungarehu, ashes; rehutai, sea 

spray; turehu, indistinctly seen. Tahiti: rehu, ashes, soot, 
powder in general ; rehurehu, the dusk. Rapanui : rehu, dust. 
Mangareva : rehti, reu, ashes ; rehurehu, the morning soon after 
sunrise; r eur eu, Tnorning. Sikayana: rehu, lime. Raro tonga: 
reu, ashes; reureu, dark. Moriori: purungehu, ashes. 
nefu. 

Samoa: nefu, to be stirred up, turbid, muddy; nenefu, to be dim, 
indistinct. Tonga: nenefu, twilight, dimness, dim, dull, 

uncertain. Futuna: nenefu, dimness of vision. Uvea: 
nefunefu, darkness, gloom, mist, vapor, turbid, dusty. Maori: 
nehu, dust, steam; nehunehu, dusky. Mangareva: panehu, 
to dry up, to wither; paneu, gray, covered with dust. 

Viti: ndravu, ashes; ndravundravua, ashy; ndravukasi, dust, dusty; 
ndravusd, ashes, to rub the head with ashes. Rotuma : roh, 
ashes. 

Marina: avuavu, ashes. Arag: taniavu, id. Lakon: tangehav, id. 
Maewo : ndigevu, id. Fagani, Vaturanga, Nggela, Guadalcanar : 
ravu, id. Bugotu: pindaravu, id. Nggao: parafu, id. Motu: 
rahurahu, ashes, a fireplace. Doura : kokorahu, ashes. Kabadi : 
rauna, id. Savo: lavu, id. Roro: r abu, id. Uni: labu, id. 
Wedau, Galavi, Boniki: lapukare, id. Duke of York: kabu, id. 
Taupota: gabuwari, id. Wedau: ai-gabwwari, id. Sesake: 



314 



THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



tano au, ashes. Mota: rav, dusk; ravrav, dusk of evening; 
malurav, id. ; marav, dim, misty. Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel : uwus, 
ashes. Mosin: tuwus, id. Mota, Gog: tarowo, id. Vuras, 
Motlav: ivowo, id. Lo: wowa, id. Norbarbar: powo, puio, id. 
Keapara: abu, id- Mekeo: ae-apu, id. Motu: gahu, id. 
Tavara: gahue, id. Awalama: gahuive, id. Sariba: gavara, id. 

Malay: abu, dabu, labu, dust, ashes; kalabu,klabu, ashy, ash-colored. 
Java: awu, kluwu, dust, ashes. Malagasy: vuvuka, id. 

Arabic: haba (habu), to rise, to float in the air (dust), to become 
like dust, ashes; habwat, dust; habut, dust, dust mixed with 
ashes; hebwa, fine dust, powder; mutahabbi, weak in sight. 

There can be no doubt that an intimate relationship obtains between 
efu, lefu, and nefu. It is too early to establish the relation, yet from 
the form I am hopeful that further inquiry along the lines which I have 
already discussed in the presentation of my theory of development by 
consonantal modulants will lay bare the life history of this interesting 
group. The only backward glimpse which our material affords is that 
which Tonga efuhia gives us of a Proto-Samoan stem ef us, and this is found 
again to the westward. 

As the stems indicate relationship by their form, so do the several signifi- 
cations show that the stems are so near that it is possible for a certain 
meaning to appear first in one and then in another. The following tabu- 
lation will make that clear : 



Samoa. . . . 
Tonga .... 

Niue 

Uvea 

Futuna . . . 
Nukuoro. . 

Maori 

Moriori. . . 
Tahiti .... 
Marquesas 
Rarotonga 
Mangareva 
Hawaii. . . 



Dust. 


Ashes. 


Vapor. 


efu 


lefu 




efu 


efu 




efu 


efu 


lefu 


efu, nefu 


efu, lefu 


nefu 


efu 


lefu 




rehu 


lefu 


(ehu 


nehu 


rehu. . . . 


I nehu > 




rehu 


[rehu 


rehu 


rehu 




ehu 


ehu 
reu 




ehu, neu 


ehu, rehu 




ehu 


lehu 


ehu 



Darkness. 



nefu 
nefu 

nefu 
nefu 

rehu, nehu 

reu 
ehu, lehu 



Twilight. 



nefu 



rehu 
ehu 



Muddy. 



nefu 
ehu 

nefu 



ehu 
ehu 



A glance down these columns will show how the sense plays from one 
stem to each of its associates ; there is but one column that does not carry 
all three stems, and the Maori employs all three to express the signification 
vapor. We are, therefore, wholly justified in dealing with the three as a 
unit in examining their exterior relations. 

In the three Polynesian lists there is little which calls for explanation, 
for we scarcely need pause here to dissect the few simple composites. The 
Moriori purungehu ashes is readily reducible as a metathesis upon the 
Maori pungarehu. The crepuscular sense is plain in Tonga, Tahiti, and the 
Marquesas as an immediate development out of the yet more general 
meaning of darkness and indistinctness of vision ; yet in Mangareva rehurehu 
we find the word transferred from the gloaming before the dawn to a posi- 



DATA AND NOTES. 315 

tion after sunrise, when, in the clear Ught of day, the primal sense is lost. 
The vSikayana rehu lime, a specialized powder, finds a far-eastern parallel 
in Tahiti rehu, which is distinctly applicable to any powder. 

In Efat6 we find efu (abu, afu, au) and lefu (libu, lifu); mafu is not to be 
correlated with any of the Pol3Tiesian stems. 

Viti ndravu, both dust and ashes, recalls the vowel found in Efatd abu, 
and at the same time the ndr is evidential that the Proto-Samoan stem 
was refu with the r grasseye (»Samoan Phonetics, 17 Journal of the Poly- 
nesian Society, 152). 

In Melanesia we shall institute our search for the simple stem. I have 
already remarked that this was efus. This enables us at once to pick up 
the Vanua Lava forms, the uwus of Pak, Sasar, and Alo Teqel ; the .$•, in fact 
the us, is clear at first sight, the f-w mutation is confirmed by a widely 
extended range of examples. Mosin tuwus is this identified uwus with 
frontal accretion of some sort. Vuras is but a few miles from Sasar along 
the same beach, therefore wowo is readily acceptable as a dialectic variant ; 
the terminal s has dropped off and the then final wu has undergone modifi- 
cation to wo and later duplication. Motlav has the same form, and Lo 
wowa but slightly differs. Having now established wo as the vestige of efu 
we find it a composition member of puwo of Norbarbar and tarowo of Gog 
and Mota. Starting afresh with efu, we find it in Efate afu, abu; in Marina 
avuavu; as a composition member in Arag, Lakon and Maewo forms ; having 
lost its labial we have au in Efat6 and Sesake, this identification being 
open to such doubt as our lack of cordiality to internal loss may warrant. 

We next examine the lefu stem. In Efate lifu and libu are clear. Ravu 
is well distributed, both independently and in composition, rafu, rahu, lavu, 
and in Mota rav. 

The Duke of York kabu ashes is to be rejected, but I have left it with 
this material because of its reappearance in Viti kambu vapor, which is one 
of the senses pertaining to this protean efu stem. 

Our Indonesian material is scanty, but efu and lefu stems are recognizable. 

In the Semitic offered for our consideration it must be acknowledged 
that there is a certain resemblance, but the disclosure of a final t where our 
Polynesian has the .y-terminal is enough to stamp this as not a family 
resemblance. 

273- 
(a) afa ki, ofa ki, to bury. 

Samoa : Ufi, a lid, a cover, to cover, to conceal ; uflta'i, to cover with. 
Tonga : uufl, a cover, to cover, to overspread ; ufiufi, to cover, 
to conceal. Futuna: uufi, to cover, to hide, to conceal, to 
disguise ; Hfla, covered ; ufiufi, to cover things without envelop- 
ing them. Uvea: ufi, uufi, to cover. Niue: Ufi, a covering, 
to cover up, to conceal. Maori : uhi, uwhi, to cover, a cover- 
ing. Hawaii : uhi, a covering, a veil, to cover over a thing so as 
to hide it. Mangareva : uhiuhi, to hide, to cover. 

Viti: umbia, to cover over; umbi, the top, lid, cover, a quilt. 

Malagasy : afina, to be concealed ; manafina, to conceal, to bury. 

Arabic: ''aba, to conceal, to be concealed, to bury. 



316 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

(b) ui, uui (uwi), the yam. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea, Aniwa, Sikayana : ufi. Vat6 : 
uf. Maori: mvhi, uhi. Nukuoro, Moiki, Tahiti, Hawaii, 
Mangareva, Rapanui, Paumotu: uhi. Marquesas: buauhi. 
Mangaia, Rarotonga: ui. Fotuna: aufi. 

Viti: uvi. Rotuma: uk. 

British New Guinea, Murua, Kiriwina, Galavi, Boniki: kuvi, yam. 
Nggela : kuikuvi, a cover, to cover ; kuvihia, to cover ; kuikuvi, 
a leaf used as an umbrella. Mukawa: kubi, yam. Nada: 
kuva,i6.. Fagani: itw, id. 'Pdka.vi: veu,i6.. Wango, Saa: 
uhi, id. Motu: uhe, the end of the yam, which is kept for 
planting. Aneityum: n-uh, yam . Tanna: n-uk, id. New 
Caledonia: ubi, id. Vanikoro: upie, id. Baki: yubi, id. 
Eromanga: n-up, id. Baravon: up, id. Makura: na-u, id. 
New Ireland (Carteret Harbor) : u, id. Pala : uh, id. 

Malay: ubi, yam. Kayan: uvi, id. Java, Kisa: uwi, id. 

Malagasy: ubi, ovy, id. 

Arabic: "aydb, roots (so called because buried in the ground). 

The cause of this collocation is the satisfaction of Macdonald's Semitic 
theory in his naif interpretation that roots are things buried in the ground. 

A. 

It is highly problematical whether there is any identity between afa ki and 
Ufi. The Polynesian and the Viti make no reference to burial ; the dominant 
sense is to cover by setting the covering agent upon the object to be con- 
cealed. It is not until we reach the Malagasy, and a secondary form at 
that, that we find any recognition of the burial sense. In general I am 
opposed to the acceptance of any Malagasy identification where there is 
any but the closest resemblance of form and meaning, except where we find 
it upheld by a satisfactory suite of transition forms in Indonesia. The 
Arabic is quite as imperfectly correlated with Polynesian ufi as is Ffat6 
afa-ki, in fact more so, for we should need evidence as to the abrasion of 
so strong a palatal as ". Furthermore the Pro to-Samoan stem is uf it. Its 
only Melanesian appearance is in Nggela kuvihia, which bespeaks a kuvis 
stem, not wholly to be accepted as to fe-accretion and t-s mutation in the 
absence of transition forms, although we have some evidence tending to 
establish this mutation. 

B. 

The absence of the inner labial spirant in the Efat^ forms finds a true 
Polynesian parallel in Mangaia and Rarotonga; in Melanesia it is found 
only in the most degenerate forms, in which naught survives of the word 
but its initial vowel. 

The Polynesian life-history of the word is plain ; it is written about the 
successive mutations of the central consonant, /-z;-/j-extinction. 

In Melanesia we shall examine the identifications by the same criterion. 
The form kuvi is anomalous in the frontal fe-accretion and it is loosely 
accredited to a territory too wide and heterogeneous to admit of more pre- 
cise identification. The ufi form is absent from this area. The first stage 



DATA AND NOTES. 317 

of the upward progression therefrom, uvi, is found in Fagani, and probably 
in Pokau if we regard veu as a 231 metathetic form. The next stage, the 
passage to the aspiration, is found in Wango and Saa uhi, Motu uhe, and 
in the abraded uh of Aneit3mm and Pala. A further step is represented 
by the uwi of Bfate. Last of all we find that the consonant has vanished 
to extinction in ui, also of Bfat6. In the downward progression the first 
step rests upon the ubi of New Caledonia and the Baki yuhi; the next upon 
the abraded up of Kromanga and Baravon. The last degeneration is shown 
in the u of Makura and New Ireland. In Tanna n-uk shows a mutation, 
labial to palatal, which we should scarcely be able to support if it were not 
that Rotuma, far more intimately within the Polynesian sphere, has also 
the form uk. 

In Indonesia we find five identifications of the most satisfactory character. 

The Arabic "ayah offers several difficulties in form besides its manifest 
lack of connection in sense, even after the pleasing parenthetical informa- 
tion. The guttural "might readily pass into k as in kuvi, but that is an 
uncertain form at best and in the wide range of the stem the initial k is 
nowhere else discoverable. The duplicated u in Tonga, Uvea, and Futuna 
is in no sense a parallel to argue a double vowel sound persisting after the 
dropping of the y in "ayab, for the uu in these three languages is no more 
than a device to express the long vowel in a font of mission type which 
lacked the macron. 

274. 

angiengi, the air, breeze; m, the wind, the air; langi, the wind. 

Samoa : angi, to blow (of the wind) ; angiangi, to blow gently. 
Tonga: angi, to blow; angiangi, to begin to blow. Futuna: 
angi, angiangi, to blow. Nine : angi, id. Uvea : angiangi, id. 
Nukuoro: angi, the wind; angiangi, a fan. Maori: angi, a 
gentle breeze; hengi, to blow gently. Mangareva: angi, a 
light wind; angiangi, to blow gently. Moriori: hokaangi, to 
shake in the wind. Hawaii: ani, aneane, to blow gently. 
Marquesas : ani, the air. 

Samoa, Tonga, Fakaafo, Futuna, Niue, Uvea, Maori, Mangaia, Mana- 
hiki, Rarotonga, Mangareva: matangi, the wind. Paumotu: 
matangi, the air. Rapanui: matangi, the air, a squall. 
Sikayana, Nuguria, Liueniua: matani, the wind. Hawaii: 
makani, id. Tahiti: wc to', id. Marquesas: metani,metaki, id. 
Aniwa: tu-mtangi, id. Fotuna: mtangi, id. 

Viti : thangi, the wind, the atmosphere ; thangina, to be blown away 
by the wind. Rotuma: lang, the wind. 

Tanna, Fromanga : matangi, the wind. Tanna : mtangi, id. Anei- 
tyum: nimtinjop, id. Lemaroro: langi, id. Sesake, Paama, 
Mota: lang, id. Nengone: 'n lang, id. Ambrym: leng, ling, 
ying, id. Uea: ang, id. Malekula: ni-en, id. Tobi: yang, id. 

Malay: aw^m, the wind, air, atmosphere. Java, Visayas, Tagalog, 
Magindano: hangin, the wind. Bicol: hagnin, id. Bugi: 
anging, id. Kisa: ange, id. Malagasy: anina, id. 

Arabic : nasama, to blow gently; nasam', na'sam, nasim', a light wind. 



318 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

In Polynesia angi is generally the verb ; the noun matangi is a composite 
of angi in its earlier attributive value with mata (324). Only in Nukuoro 
and in Maori, Mangareva, and the Marquesas does angi function as noun. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is hangi, this being the true light aspiration which 
has wholly vanished in the current phase of the languages and is recoverable 
only from Viti thangi. With this angi is affiliated the dngiengi of Efate. 

So, top, in an abraded and degraded form is, in my opinion, Efat6 in. 
In its first stage, the simple abrasion, we find Uea (Loyalties) ang; parallel 
with this, but in the remoter Micronesian area, is Tobi yang. Thus we 
reach Ambrym ying, from which it is but a simple step to in. Another 
short step thence leads us to ni-en of Malekula. 

The common Polynesian matangi appears intact in two of the languages 
of the New Hebrides, of which Tanna has a shortened form mtangi, which 
also appears in the Polynesian verge islands Aniwa and Fotuna. A yet 
further deviation from this stem is the rude ni-mtinjop of Aneityum. 

Interwoven with these wind words we find langi. I feel that this is the 
Polynesian langi sky borrowed with only a general regard for its sense. 
We find it in the wind meaning and in its full langi form in Efat6 and 
Lemaroro; abraded in Sesake, Paama, Mota and Nengone; abraded and 
subjected to vowel deterioration in Ambrym leng, ling. Of these Nengone 
and Mota express the sky by Melanesian words. The Melanesian lang wind 
occurs in Rotuma, which uses langi for the sky. 

In Indonesia the primal aspiration is retained in Java, the Visayas, Tag- 
alog, Magindano and Bicol ; and in these and in the other instances cited 
the identification is wholly satisfactory except for the apparent inversion 
gn in Bicol. 

Between hangi and vSemitic triliterals nsm it is impossible to see any 
relation. 

275- 

(a) aka, koa, stringy, fibrous ; akoa na, ako ana, root (literal and figurative) ; 
aka na, ek, eka na, a relative, family connection (considered 
as root or offshoot from). 

Samoa : a' a, fibers of a root, family connections, a plant whose root 
is sometimes eaten. Tonga: aka, the root of trees, to take 
root in the earth. Futuna : aka, root in general, a vine with an 
edible root. Niue: vaka, a root; aka, a soft- leaved creeping 
plant whose root is eaten in time of scarcity. Uvea : aka, 

root. Maori : aka, long fibrous roots, a climbing plant. Tahiti : 
aa, roots. Hawaii: aa, small roots. Marquesas: aka, a 
root ; eka, young roots of trees from which native cloth is made. 
Rarotonga, Nukuoro, Rapanui, Paumotu : aka, root. Nuguria : 
haka, id. 

Viti : yaka, a creeper whose root is edible. 
(6) kaka naniu, the fibrous substance, like coarse cloth, that grows around 
the stem of the coconut. 

Samoa : 'a' a, lau'a'a, the fibrous stipule of the coconut leaf. Tonga : 
kaka, thin fibrous substance found around the young coconut. 
Futuna: kdkd, species of tissue which grows on the coconut. 
Maori : kaka, anything fibrous or stringy. Marquesas : kaka, 



DATA AND NOTES. 



319 



web or cloth covering the leaves of coconut trees, a sack. 
Mangareva: kaka, the envelope of coconut leaves. Tahiti: 
aa, the fibrous substance which grows on the coconut, the husk 
or covering on the young breadfruit branches. Hawaii : aa, 
the cloth-like covering near the roots of coconut leaves, a coarse 
kind of cloth. 

Viti: waka, the fibers or roots of a tree. Rotuma: va'a, root. 
These all signify root : 

Murray Island: sip kak. Duke of York: akar. New Britain: 
okor. Bugotu: oga. Savo: ogni. Arag: garo. Alite: 
kalokalo. Lo: gurah. Merlav: gari. Gog: gerin. Mota: 
gariu. Motlav: goren. Sasar: gorgi. Pak, Alo Teqel: 
gergi. Volow: girigi. Mosin: sigrigi. Omba: goarigi. 
Maewo: goarii. Lakon: gegi. Marina: goe. 

Malay: akar, the roots of a plant, a scandent plant, the parts of a 
plant that climb ; akar, root, origin, principle, foundation (this 
last word is said by Crawfurd to be Arabic). Kayan: aka, 
root. Salayer, Gah: akar, id. Sula: kao-akar, id. 

Arabic: 'afe^a, 'afeafe, to be split, fissured ; 'afe^o, a fissure ; 'akikat\a 
bag; 'awako, small sprouts shooting from the upper part of a 
palm; 'ikkano, shoots sprouting from the roots of palms and 
vines; 'akka, to send forth such shoots from the roots. 



In aka we find two words alike in form, aka a root and aka the vine. In 
general these two words have exactly the same form, but in Niue and Viti 
they are distinguished and in practically the same way. The root signifi- 
cation in Niue is expressed by vaka (vaka is also canoe) ; in Viti waka (canoe 
being wangga), and Rotuma va'a (vaka being canoe) are the same. If this 
•y-initial were radical we should expect its recurrence somewhere along the 
line ; the frontal accretion of Polynesian stems is so unusual that we are 
without data for its intelligent study. The plant name in Niue is aka, as 
in the rest of Polynesia. In Viti it is yaka. This Viti y-initial is of great 
interest and therefore I give in the following list all the instances in which 
I have identified the word in which it is used with a Polynesian stem. 



Viti. 


Samoa. 


Meaning. 


Viti. 


Samoa. 


Meaning. 


yamhia 


pia 


arrowroot 


yate 


ate 


liver 


yandra 


ala 


awake 


yatu 


atu 


a row in series 


yaka 


aka 


a plant 


yava 


vae 


foot 


yam 


ane 


a moth 


yava 


pa 


barren, of women 


yam 


ane 


directive 


yavato 


afato 


a maggot 


yast 


asi 


sandalwood 


yawa 


ava 


a fish 



In yamhia and in both identifications of yava it will be seen that it is not 
merely y-initial but the syllable ya. There is nothing in the life-history of 
these words (cf. 276 for the only other instance included in these data) to 
indicate that the Viti y-initial retains the impress of something radical. 
Yet one must regard the impression unavoidably acquired that Viti yaka, 
e.g., retains some delicate intonation of vowel which characterized in the 
Proto-Samoan the initials of these words. 



320 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Bfat6 aka of relationship is repeated only in Samoa. The word for root, 
akoa, despite its extra syllable, may be found to come into concord with 
Polynesian aka through the equivalence of aka-koa fibers. The type of 
root embraced in this word is the fibrous roots, as reappears here and there 
in these definitions. 

In Melanesia the identification is intricate. The Murray Island locution 
seems to include a form of this word. The Duke of York akar is a certain 
identification. New Britain okor is clearly the same word, and Bugotu oga 
comes readily into line, and Savo og-ni is recognizable. If now we accept 
an abraded form ka, not found independently, we shall find a chain of 
development as follows : 

gar Savo, Merlav, Mota, Alite. gor Motlav, Sasar, Omba, Maewo. 
ger Gog, Pak, Alo Teqel. gur Lo. 

gir Volow, Mosin. 

Lakon gegi and Marina goe are not to be omitted, but they are highly 
irregular. 

The Indonesian identifications are very clear. 

Unfortunately for the Semitic identifications offered their correlation 
depends on the harmonizing of aka and kaka. Even then they have no 
significations which mean fiber, root, or this specialized stipule. 

B. 

It is not improbable that aka and kaka are homogenetic, but the lan- 
guages have not yet been sufficiently studied after my theory of coefficient 
modulants to enable us to present any sort of proof. Ex hypothesi we 
should have a stem ka with a broad meaning of fiber ; the element a should 
determiae the ka fiber in some such manner as to limit it to root fibers; 
the reduplicated kaka with its intensive force should picture the interlacing 
fibers of this natural product. Unfortunately we can not yet prove a single 
one of these points. Our kaka is limited to Polynesia and restricted to the 
coconut fabric except that in Tahiti it extends to the breadfruit, the bam- 
boo, and the sugarcane, and that among the Maori, who have not in their 
colder land the coconut, it has possibly reverted to the primordial sense of 
anything fibrous. 

276. 

ate, the liver (of a shark), the spleen; are, the liver; uateam, the kidneys. 
Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Fotuna, Nuguria, Maori, Tahiti, 

Marquesas, Mangareva, Rarotonga: ate, the liver. Rapanui: 

ate, the liver, the lungs. Hawaii: ake, id. 
Viti: yate, the liver. 
Solomon Islands : ati, the chest. Malekula Uripiv : ere, the liver. 

New Guinea (Maclay Coast) : arre, the liver. Mota : varai, 

vare, the chest, the liver. Rubi, Suau, Dobu: ate, the liver. 

Wedau : ate, the gall bladder. Motu : ase, aze, the liver. Roro :: 

ahe, id. Mekeo: ae, id. Nada: ata, id. Sariba: kate, id. 

Mukawa: katekate, id. Kiriwina: kata, id. Murua: katu, id. 



DATA AND NOTES. 321 

Sinaugoro: gase, id. Galoma: gae, id. Hula: aie, id. Awa- 

lama: ade, id. 
Malay: ati, the liver, the heart (morally). Java: ati, the heart. 

Kisa: akin, id. Magindano: ati, the liver. Pampangas: 

ate, id. Ternati: /^m^, id. Matu: ato*, id. Tagalog: aia% id.; 

ati, the middle. 
Arabic: kabd', kabid', the liver. Hebrew: kabed, id. Ethiopic: 

kabde, id. 

In the Efat6 are several puzzles. The general name for the liver in all 
Polynesia is here the spleen of men, and it should be borne in mind that 
in an anthropophagous society the works of one's own kind are far more 
familiar objects than in communities of a wider dietary. The word does 
appear as the liver, but of the shark ; the human liver is are. 

It is possible that ate may become are, this depending on the vaUdity of 
the proof establishing the t-r mutation presented in note 258. Are is readily 
identifiable as ere in Malekula Uripiv, arre in New Guinea. Mota vare may 
indicate : (i) that there is a stronger stem from which are develops by frontal 
abrasion — in which case the ate-are identification is scarcely probable; (2) 
that Mota has acquired v by frontal accretion, a process which is by no 
means satisfactorily established ; (3) Mota vare in conjunction with Viti yate 
(see note 275) may indicate some light initial sound in Proto-Samoan, too 
light to be caught in the general scheme of Polynesian consonant mutation, 
but attracting the ear of the Melanesians as a sound to them diflficult and 
unusual, therefore requiring special effort to preserve, thus accounting for 
the variance of the result in Mota and Viti. My own opinion inclines to 
the third view. The fact that in Mota the liver word includes the chest 
leads naturally to the inclusion of Solomon Island ati chest and Tagalog 
ati the middle in these identifications. 

The Indonesian citations are perfectly satisfactory. 

The Semitic is the triliteral kbd. No trace of the d is fotmd in the 
three eastern areas. The subject of an initial sound has already been dis- 
cussed. We know it only as astronomers know invisible celestial bodies 
by the regularity of certain perturbations in their computations. We do 
not certainly know what this echo of an initial sound may have been, but we 
do know beyond any doubt that it could not have been k, for the mutation 
scheme of that palatal is abundantly understood. 

There remains to us the consideration of Efat^ uateam. I cite Dr. 
Macdonald in extenso: 

In Efat6 uateam' (d. uateau) the kidneys is ua ate am', lit., fruit of the liver (or inside) 
of the belly {am' the belly); ua-nate-natuo or ua-naie-tuo, the calf of the leg, in one 
dialect is denoted by uateau natore, lit., kidneys of the shin (i. e., the leg from the knee 
to the foot), and uateau laso denotes kidneys of the scrotum; ua, fruit, is used because 
the parts spoken of are round or fruit-shaped. 

The validity of this determination of uateam' as pertaining to the aie 
liver stem rests upon vxi-ate, fruit of the liver, becoming uate through crasis. 
In my judgment it is simpler to avoid all reference to ate liver and to find 
in uate an identification with fuata, the stronger form from fuat fruit, as 
to which see note 360. 



322 THE) POI.YNKSIAN WANDERINGS. 

277. 
aiia (awa), naiia, ua, veins, muscles. 

Samoa : ua, sinews, tendons, veins, arteries. Tonga : uoua, sinew, 
tendon; zwuatanu, deep, out of sight, the veins of the arms. 
Futuna: ua, vein, sinew, muscle; uaiia, veins which show. 
Uvea: ua, vein. Maori: uaua, a sinew, vein, artery. Tahiti: 
uaua, sinew, tendon, ligament, vein. Marquesas: uaua, vein, 
artery, nerve, tendon. Mangareva: ua, tendon, vein, nerve. 
Rapanui: ua, sinew, tendon; uaua, vein. Paumotu: tareua, 
tendon. Moriori: uau, artery. Nuguria: nauka, vein. 

Hawaii: aa, vein. 
Viti: tia, a vein, muscle; vakaua, uauana, muscular, strong. 
Laur: urat, vein. 

Malay: ttrat, nerve, sinew. Matu: urat, vein, sinew. Ilocan: 
ttra^, vein. Tagalog: ugat, id. Pampangas: w)/a/,id. Kayan: 
uat, sinew. Java: wad (through tihat, uat), vein, muscle. 
Bugi: urok, vein. Malagasy: uzatra, huzatra, vein. 
Arabic: 'irk', 'araka, veins. 
Excising the article a(na) the Efate ua accords with the ua of Polynesia 
in form and general signification. In the crude anatomical knowledge of 
these races it is easy to see what iia really is, the cordlike bodies in the flesh 
which appear under the skin. Thus vein and tendon are the same thing 
and one word describes them. It is not until we reach Hawaiian aa that 
we find any variant of ua. 

Our only Melanesian identification is Laur urat. This is a form which 
appears exactly in three Malayan languages. Laur is right in the east gate 
in a region where it is possible to suspect a late Malayan source of the word 
after the Polynesian migration had passed through. 

The Indonesian forms exhibit a remarkable treatment of the ua stem, so 
remarkable that we may entertain grave doubts of their identity. There 
is everywhere one consonant unaccountable and generally two, the Polyne- 
sian stem nowhere exhibiting the slightest trace of any consonant. Kayan 
uat is the nearest approach to ua; from that to Malay urat we have a steadily 
strengthening chain. These two consonants are such as the Polynesian 
would have had no difficulty in preserving had they been primordial. 

The Semitic here offered is yet farther removed from ua; it is even 
stronger than urat, which only imperfectly does it resemble. 

278. 
bwa, ua, boua, to rain. 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Futuna, Uvea, Fotuna, Nuguria, Maori, Tahiti, 
Hawaii, Rarotonga, Marquesas, Mangareva, Rapanui, Manahiki : 
ua, rain. Aniwa: ua,towa,i6.. Sikayana: o«a, id. Nukuoro: 
mata-ua, raindrop. Tonga, Niue: uha, rain. 
Viti: utha, rain. Rotuma: uas, id. 

The following signify rain : 

Sesake, Marina, Tangoan Santo, Suau, Maewo: usa. Dobu, Kubiri: 
usana. Kiviri : usan. Sariba : kuse. Vaturanga, Bugotu, 
Kggela: uha. Deni: ua. Fpi: ua, yua. Baki: yuo. 



DATA AND NOTES. 323 

Bierian : nihua. Arag, Omba : uhe. Aneitytim, Bromairga : ehe. 
Guadalcanar : M//ia. Alite:^^. Santo, Vate, Malekula : «w. 
Lakon : uh. Ambrym : o. New Ireland (Duffield) : eyils, eus. 
Rubi : ura. Buka : urata, uroto, uruotta. Bougainville : urata. 
Gog : urei. Arag, Merlav : reu. Pak : wat. Sasar, Alo Teqel : 
wet. Lo : weta. Volow : -wend. Norbarbar, Vuras, Mosin : wen. 
IVTota: wena. Wango, Fagani: rangi. Nggao: hani. 
Kayan: usan. Togean Islands: tuijan. Rotti: udan. Matabello: 
udama. Kaili : uda. Malay, Sandol : hujan. Java : hudan. 
Gani, Wahai, Salu, Timor, Visayas: ulan. Tobo: u'lan. 

Cajeli, Caimarian: ulani. Bual: ulanu. Awaiya: uldne. 
Liang, Morella : hulan. Batumerah : hulani. Amblaw : ulah. 
Ende : ura. Tidore, Pampangas : uran. Ceram : urana. Sali- 
babo: urong. Kisa: ungang. Gah: uan. Malagasy: orana. 
Galela: hura. Baju: huran. Teor: hurani. Lariko: haran. 
Sula : huya. Bolanghitam : oha. Mysot : golini. 
Arabic: ba'a, to rain continuously; ba'a'a, rain, rain water. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is uha. This is shown by Viti utha, which, might 
derive with equal facility from uha or usa, but if the latter were radical 
Samoa would have preserved it as usa, and it would have appeared as uha 
in the long list of sister languages which represent a Proto-Samoan sibilant 
by the aspiration. It does appear as uha in Tonga and Nine, which nor- 
mally preserve the Proto-Samoan h. In Rotuma it has become usa and 
has then undergone metathesis to comply with the local idiosyncrasy for 
closed stems. In Efate the prefixing of b is unexplained. 

The Proto-Samoan uha is preserved in Vaturanga, Bugotu, Nggela ; with 
one vowel change in Arag and Omba, with alteration of both vowels in 
Aneityum, and with terminal abrasion in Lakon. Guadalcanar repeats the 
Viti utha. The mutation to s is seen in the usa of Sesake, Marina, Tangoan 
Santo, and Maewo; the M>r by abrasion in Santo, Vat^, and Malekula; prob- 
ably in Duffield's New Ireland eyiis, eus. The ua of the modern phase of 
Polynesian is found in Deni and Epi, and in the latter island both Baki 
and Bierian preface it with weak sounds. The uta of Alite is a degeneration 
form of Guadalcanar utha arising from a second borrowing of loan material 
and without knowledge of the true form of the original. This is no merely 
theoretical deduction. In Fiji I have observed that Melanesians in learning 
the Viti almost uniformly reproduce the dh of that speech with t, d, nt, nd, 
where the sound (though the Fijians had no knowledge of the fact) was the 
preservation of Polynesian stems containing the aspiration. The o of Am- 
brym is explicable as a degeneration form to which we are led by Lakon uh. 
We must postpone further consideration of the Melanesian material imtil 
we have examined the Indonesian record. We shall compare these forms 
with the primal and successive forms hereinbefore developed. 
uha. This appears in but a single instance, Bolanghitam oha. 
usa. This, too, is found but once, Kayan usan, in which appears the 
final Indonesian n which is so prevalent in this area and will not 
be further noticed here. 
ua. In Gah uan and in Sula huya with the prefix of the aspiration 
which is found in Bierian ni-hua and freely in Indonesia. 



324 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

We now enter upon a great group of forms in which the primal aspiration 
has undergone greater mutation. The majority of these mutations are 
in the lingual series, a proof that the original is the h near the lingual 
closures. In this series we shall consider the weakening mutations, those 
upward in the vowel direction, disregarding the initial accretion of h and 
the formative terminal n. 

ula. Gani, Wahai, Salu, Timor, Visayas, Tobo, Cajeli, Caimarian, 
Bual, Awaiya, Liang, Morella, Batumerah, Amblaw. Mysot 
golim may be considered in this series, but with no great insistence. 
ura. Ende, Tidore, Pampangas, Ceram, Salibabo, Malagasy, Galela, 
Baju, Teor, I^ariko. 
We next examine the strengthening mutations, the downward movement. 
The first of these is usa, already presented as a normal variation. 
udja. Togean Islands, Malay, Sandol. 
uda. Rotti, Matabello, Kaili, Java. 
We have a single example in which occurs h-ng mutation ; this represents 
a resultant of the first weakening variation to ula and then the horizontal 
strengthening by movement to the palate, l-ng being a mutation of which 
the tabular view will supply examples in Melanesia. These are to be 
regarded as specifically Indonesian mutations; they are not found at all 
in Polynesia, and h-j and h-d very sparingly in Melanesia outside this stem. 
We shall now resume the consideration of the Melanesian material. The 
ula-ura which has occupied so large a space in Indonesia may with consider- 
able probability be identified in Buka and Bougainville urata and variants. 
In case this identification be considered acceptable I would ascribe it to a 
Post- Polynesian period, a raid along the ancient track conducted by Indo- 
nesian peoples, for these two northern outliers of the Solomons are within 
reach of the prahus. In note 277lhave already introduced this explanation. 
But Gog urei and Arag-Merlav reu, metathetically derived therefrom, lie 
geographically too remote to be susceptible of this explanation in view of 
the fact that no intervening record appears. But is such the case? 

In Buka uruotta, readily seen to be a variant of urata, we find the pos- 
sibility of a transition form, a stem in which the final t is established for 
this area. It is possible that in further borrowings uruotta, losing its first 
two letters (not a true syllable), might, as u^tta, lead us to weta of Lo, wet 
of Sasar and Alo Teqel, ivat of Pak. From wet to Volow wend is easier than 
it might seem, for wet var3Tng toward wed would encounter the idiosyncrasy 
that Volow and several other Melanesian languages, as well as Viti, can not 
essay the d without the supporting preface of the nasal of the same series. 
From wend to wen and wena is very simple on the explanation of secondary 
borrowing, as already pointed out in the case of h-th-t, the reinforced con- 
sonant being objectionable to later borrowers, and on that score they reject 
the final one of two linked sounds in their ignorance that this it is which 
represents the primal sound. Thus we may bring the second group of 
Melanesian identifications into line, representative of a Post-Polynesian 
movement. 

The third Melanesian group, Wango-Fagani rangi and Nggao hangi, is 
the Polynesian langi the sky, which we have already seen (274) pressed into 



DATA AND NOTE^S. 325 

Melanesian service to denominate the wind. The reason is not far to seek, 
for it's the wind and the rain and the sky above us all, for it's all one and 
naught lies beyond but the great, the pitiless gods. 

And this Semitic, foolishly treading on the heels of so wide a imity, has 
but this plea to make, that Bfate has added to uha a b, which nowhere else 
appears to have left a trace. 

279. 

bwabwa, a hollow, channel or bed of a stream dry except after heavy rains, 
an opening through the jungle, a board ; bwala, level. 
Samoa: Papapapa, the name of a rocky path among cascades in 
the bed of a stream just south of the tuasivi on the alasopo 
from Apia to Safata; papa, a rock, a board, plane, level, flat; 
papapapa, level, as a rocky road. Tonga: papa, a board, 
plane, even (as a road much trodden); papapapa, smooth. 
Uvea, Futuna : papa, a board. Nine : laupapa, a board, a floor. 
Nuguria : papa, rocks. Maori : papa, anything broad, flat and 
hard, to lie flat, a flat rock, a slab, a board, a door, a shutter. 
Tahiti : papa, a board, a flat rock. Hawaii : papa, applied to 
many substances having a hard flat surface, a board. Mangaia : 
papa, a base, a foundation. Mangareva: papa, a foundation, 
a plank. Marquesas: papa, stones on the shore; papahua, a 
board ; papapoho, a plank, a gate, a door. Paumotu : papa, a 
rock ; tipapa, lying flat. Nukuoro : papapa, flat ; papapapa, low. 
Viti: mbamba, a board. 

Motu : papapapa, a flat rock. Mota : taptapapa, flat-sided ; tapa, a 

hoard; papalak,papalaoia, thin. Aneityum: apalapal, thin, Qat. 

Malay, Basakrama: papan, a board. Macassar: papang, id. Bugi: 

papon, id. 
Arabic: 6a6a-<', surface, board, table, slab ; 6*6', channel ; 6a6', door, 
gate, hall; 6a6a, to dig a hole. Hebrew: babah, a gate. 
A particularly interesting coincidence of specialized significations lies in 
Efati bwabwa and the Samoan Papapapa. 

In the Polynesian which we can mass this stem appears as a duplication 
of pa. But Bfatd bwala, paralleled by Aneitjoim apalapal and Mota papa- 
lak and papalaota, very strongly suggests a stronger closed stem pal. The 
other Mota forms seem to be composites of ta and pa, for taptapapa is 
explained by Codrington as a duplication form, although highly irregular 
when referred to PoljTiesian duplication mechanics. 

If this pal stem be acceptable it interposes difficulty in the way of Semitic 
identification through form resemblance. 

280. 
balu-sa, to paddle, row; balusa sa, paddle or row with it (a paddle or oar). 
Epi dd. mbeluo ka,mbahuakin,v. t., Aneityura.aheleth,to paddle, 
to row, to sail, Ambrym fuloh, to paddle, Fijian ai vothe, an 
oar, vothe, to paddle, to row, vothe-taka, v. t. ( = balu-saki, to 
paddle a canoe, to row a boat), Paama paltisa, Malekula d. 
masu, Malekula Aulua sua, Malo mo sua, Tanna asua, Futima 
sua, Malagasy vui, act of rowing ; mivui, to row ; -vuizina, rowed ; 
■fivui, an oar; Malay dayung, an oar; dayung, bcLrdayung, to row. 



326 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Note: Balu-sakiis the same as vothe-taka. The verb "to row" isbalu, vothe, {m)beluo, 
(m)bahua, vui, masu, and without the preformative b', {v', m'), asua, sua, dayung, and 
the I in balu, th in vothe, h in mbahua, s in sua, d in dayung, all are variations of the 
same original consonant which is elided in vui. The word for oar, ai vothe, fivui, is in 
Efate uose, d. uohe (wose, woke), Futuna foi. In Futuna the connection between sua, 
to paddle, and foi, an oar or paddle, is not so apparent as that between Malekula Pang- 
kumu su, to paddle, and bos, a paddle, because in foi, as in vui (Viti vothe) the ^ has 
been elided; and the connection between Efate balu, to paddle, and uose, a paddle, is 
not so apparent as that between Epi mbahua, to paddle, and voho, a paddle, Epi d. 
bahua, to paddle, and boho, a paddle. Arabic gadafa, kadafa, (or 'at'afa), Amharic kazaf 
(or 'azaf), to propel with oars, to row. Modern Arabic kaddaf, or 'addaf, part, mo'addif 
(anc. mo'addif, or m,o'azzif, cf . vothe, bose, uose, vui, foi) . Sua is without the preforma- 
tive, cf . 'azafa, 'addaf: balu seems to have the same prefix as Samoa pale, to row, with- 
out which is Samoa alo (ps. alofia), and alo-fa'i, to paddle, row, and with another verb, 
Samoa taualo, to row, to keep on rowing. 

The foregoing is cited from Dr. Macdonald's work, an excellent example 
of his dictionary method : I subjoin a few notes from the Melanesian tract 
as a slight addition to the record. 

Mota: sua, to paddle; suava, a paddling. Buka: sschue, soa, to 
row. Matupit : walua, to row. Baravon : walue-vue, to row 
off. Lambell: 'z;a/M<?, to paddle. K.mg: vulusu, id. Lamassa: 
iavds, id. Moiki: ango, to row, is Polynesian, Samoan dlo, 
under the influence of the local change of / to ng. 
281. 
baro-si, baru-sl, to rub, to grate; farofaro, a thing which rasps. 

Samoa : vdlu, to scratch, to scrape out (as coconuts) ; valu, to scrape 
(as taro); valusanga, scrapings (as of taro). Tonga: valu, to 
scrape. Futuna : valu, to rub, to rasp, to scrape. Nuguria : 
valuvalu, to peel taro. Tahiti: varu, vau, to shave, to bark 
a tree, to scratch. Mangareva: varu, to scrape fruit, to cut 
the hair. Rapanui : varuvaru, to scrape, to rasp, to shave, to 
plane, to peel ; hauhau, to scrape. Marquesas : vau, to shave ; 
vavau, to scrape cooked breadfruit. Maori: ivaru, to scrape, 
to shave, to cut hair quite close; waruwaru, peeled. Hawaii: 
walu, to scratch, to rub, to rasp, to polish. Niue: halu, to 
scrape, to peel. Fotuna : wurusia, to scrape. 
Viti : waluya, to rub or scrape pandanus leaves to render them pliant 
for mat-making ; wandrutha, to clear the nose of mucus, to wipe 
dirt off a thing with the hand ; varota, to saw, to file, to rasp. 
Mai: barusi, to scrape. 
Malay : paras, to shave, to pare close to the surface. Malagasy : 

fara, to scrape, to scratch, to make smooth. 
Arabic : faraka, to rub, to grate. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is varus, which reappears in Bfat^, Viti {wandru- 
tha), Fotuna, Mai and Malay. While the two Samoan words are akin in 
sense it would seem that they have different stems, or perhaps that valu 
is a modification by vowel prolongation entered upon when the closing con- 
sonant of the stem had dropped from memory; the evidence for this lies 
in the objective aspect of the two verbs, of vdlu vdlusia, of vdlu vdlua. On 
the other hand the noun of action derived from vdlu, taro scrapings, is 
recorded by Pratt in the two forms valunga (without the macron) and vdlu- 



DATA AND NOTEJS. 327 

sanga. Yet as this distinction of special use by quantity is not carried along 
even into Nuclear Pol3mesia we may be justified in considering this an error 
on the part of Pratt, the more since Pere Violette marks diacritically no 
such distinction. 

The fact that the valu stem carries the specific action of the rasp (a sprig 
of coral being the common implement) through Futuna as far as Hawaii 
removes any obstacle which might exist as to the afiiliation of Efate faro- 
faro and Viti varo with valu. It is interesting to find in Viti three phases 
of the same stem. The varying treatment of the radical I suggests that 
Viti borrowed and twice repeated the borrowing from different sources. 
The varota points to a loan when the stem held its r, and Efate farofaro 
hints at the loan coming along the migration track which I have segregated 
as the Viti stream, but in this the closing radical s had vanished. The 
wandrutha points to a loan from a source which had rgrasseye and the closed 
stem, in local terms to Samoa. Then walunga indicates a source wherein 
the stem was open and the r had passed definitely into /. In our knowl- 
edge of the Polynesian waves over Viti this corresponds to theTongan. 

The Semitic is triliteral frk. There is a sense resemblance, but stated 
as a triliteron the Polynesian is vrs, the difference in the third element 
being considerable. 

282. 
bau, bao, fau, fao, new. 

Tonga: foou, foofoou, fofoou, new. Futuna: fo'ou, new, recent. 
Uvea; foou, id. Samoa: fou, new, recent; fa'afou, to make 
new. Nine: fou, new, young, recent. Aniwa, Vate: fou, 
new. Fotuna: fau, id. Maori, Nuguria, Hawaii: hou, new, 
fresh, recent., Mangareva, Tahiti, Nukuoro: hou, new. Mar- 
quesas: hou, new, recent. Rapanui, Paumotu; hou, young, 
new. Rarotonga: ou, id. 
Viti: vou, new; vovou, young. Rotuma: fo'ou, new. 
Eromanga: ite-vou, n&'vf . Malo: baro,\6.. Malekula: mermer, id. 
Motu: matamata, id. Baki: bou, id. Bierian: feu, id. 

Aneityum: mat, new, raw. Taupota, Wedau, Galavi: vou, 
new. Kubiri, Raqa: baubau, id. Kiviri, Oiun: bobu, id. 
Malagasy: vau (havauzana), new. Malay: baham, id. Kisa: 

wohruwohru, id. 
Arabic: mahduf {hadat'a), new. Hebrew: hadas', id. Syriac: 
hdat', id. Ethiopic: hadas, to renew. 
No explanation is offered in the Efat^ dictionary as to the use of the 
diaeresis on the former vowel. Yet we may be justified in assuming that 
it is clumsily an indication of long quality, for in Tonga, Futuna, Uvea, and 
Rotuma the doubled is used for the same purpose. 

This stem is soundly identified throughout Polynesia, in Efate, in Ero- 
manga, in both the Baki and Bierian of Epi, in Malagasy, and less clearly 
in Malay. Tregear's inclusion of the Kisa wohruwohru seems somewhat to 
reflect Malo baro; but in the great facility with which our Sawaiori retain 
l-r we are not warranted in admitting this to the company of fou. The 
Malekula mermer may be a variant of baro, yet that is hardly likely, since 
in note 207 we have seen that p-m is only a rare possibility. 



328 THE POIvYNBSIAN WANDERINGS. 

In Motu and Aneityum we find the intrusion of another stem, yet even 
this intrusion has both interest and value. Aneityum mat new, raw, sup- 
plies a sense link between Motu matamata new and Polynesian mata (256) 
raw. The position of these two intrusions is very significant. Motu in 
Torres Straits establishes for us one point of the migration through the 
south gate; Aneityum is in that more southern region which is a second 
determining point in the Viti stream. 

The Semitic stems in the triliteron hdt (hds) and it is impossible to 
bring into association therewith a stem whose only consonant is a sliding 
labial centered at /. 

283. 

bau-si, fau-si, bau-fau, to fasten together, to plait a mat. 

Samoa : fau, to tie together, to fasten by tying, the tree (Hibiscus 
tiliaceus) whose bast is used for cord, the kava strainer made 
therefrom, strings in various uses; fafau, to lash on, to fasten 
with sennit; faufau, to fasten on, to tie together. Tonga: 
fau, to fasten up the hair, the name of the hibiscus, the kava 
strainer made therefrom ; faufau, to fasten on the outriggers of 
small canoes; hau, to fasten to; fehauaki, to tie. Futuna: 
fau, the hibiscus, the kava strainer ; fau, fafau, faufaii, to attach, 
to tie. Nine : fau, fafau, to make by tying. Fotuna : no-fausia, 
to tie, to fasten. Tahiti: fau, the hibiscus; fafau, to tie 
together. Paumotu: fau, the hibiscus. Nuguria: hau, id. 
Maori : hou, to bind, to fasten together ; whau, a shrub ; whauwhau, 
to tie. Hawaii : hau, name of a tree with a practicable bark. 
Marquesas: hau, the hibiscus. Mangareva: hau, id.; hahau, 
to join or tie with cords. Nukuoro: hau, the hibiscus, a 
garland. Mangaia : aw, the hibiscus. 

Viti : vail, the hibiscus ; vautha, to bind together. 

Aneityum: in-wau, a creeper, a vine. Mota: vau, a pandanus; 
to mat, to plait, to weave. 

Malay: baru, the hibiscus. Java: waru, id. Kisa: warau, id. 
Malagasy: fehi, fehizana, to tie, to knot. 

Arabic: habaka, habikat', to weave, to bind, to interweave. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is faus. 

In the utter absence of perspective in which these languages appear 
before us it would be idle to engage upon the attempt to discover whether 
in sense the tree or the act of using its bast is primordial. In the records 
before us the stem carries the tree sense without the verb in the Paumotu, 
the Marquesas, Nukuoro, and Aneityum ; nowhere the verb where the noun 
does not designate a plant which yields a string. Nine and Fotuna are the 
only instances of the verb without the noun, and these may be negligible 
since the vocabularies on which we rely do not attempt to name this tree. 
For comparison I add the following hibiscus names from Micronesia on 
the authority of Mr. Christian's researches. 

Ponape: kal'au. Mortlocks: kili-fau. Ruk: sili-fau. 

Pulawat: kini-fau. Satawal: kini-fau. Lamotrek: gili-fau. 
Sonsorol: giri-fai. Uluthi: gili-fai. St. David's: gini-fai. 



DATA AND NOTES. 329 

In Indonesia we encounter a stem with an intrusive consonant and, as 
in 282, we can not accept the identification. The consonant skeleton of 
Malagasy fehi, fh, readily associates with the Polynesian is. But this 
should not lead us astray into the idea that we have an identification of 
stems. If au were diphthongal and e a very long vowel it would be a great 
task to entertain the possibility of a vowel mutation au-e. The Malagasy 
requires even more than this: it requires the extirpation of an inner and 
protected vowel, for fau is not diphthongal and the proof thereof lies in 
the preduplication fafau in Samoa, Futima, Niue, Tahiti, Mangareva. 

The Semitic hbk is certainly far away from the fs skeleton. 

284. 

bila, bilafila, to shine, to lighten, to gleam, to flash, to appear. Cf. 
fill 295. 

Samoa: pula, pupula, to shine. Futuna: pula, to fix the eyes 
on, to regard fixedly. Niue : pupula, to shine (of the eyes), 
the new moon. Uvea: pupula, to shine, to glow, to gleam, 
to beam. Maori: kapura, mapura, fire. Tahiti: pur a, a 
flash of light or fire, to flash, to blaze. Mangareva: pura, 
a spark, to shine, to glow. Rapanui: pupura, to shine, to 
be bright; hakapura, to kindle, to light. Paumotu: pura, 
phosphorescent. Nukuoro: purapura, bright. Marquesas: 
pupua, phosphorescent, shining. 

Viti: vula, white; vula, the moon. Rotuma: hula, hual, the moon. 

Nifilole : polao, the light. Bugotu, Nggela : pura, white. Santo : 
pula, light. Baravon: puapua, id. Mota: vula, white. 
Nggela, Belaga, Marina, Arag, Mota, Vaturanga, Bugotu : vula, 
the moon. Pokau: vula, id. Uni: bulo, id. Pokau: vuia, id. 
Uni: buia, id. Doura: huia, id. Motu: hua, id. Keapara, 
Galoma : 6we, id. Kuhi: 'wui,id. Omha: vule, id. Merlav, 
Gog, Lakon: vul, id. Modnus: mbul, id. Maewo: wula, id. 
Vuras, Mosin, Motlav, Volow: wol, id. Wango: hura, id. 
Ambry m : ola, id. Aneityum : laav, lav, to shine (of the moon). 

Malay, Ilocan: bulan, the moon. Tringanu: bulang, id. Solor: 
bur ang, id. Molucca: fett/am, id. Kaili: fcw/a, id. Gilolo, 
Solor: WM/aw, id. Axn: fulan, id. 'R.otti: fula, id. I/Obo: 
furan, id. Timor: funan, id. Togean Islands: fuya, id.; 
buy a, white. Kisa: ulang, moon. Magindano: ulan, id. 
Utanata: uran, id. 

Arabic : barak, bara', to shine, to gleam, to flash, to glitter, to appear, 
to lighten, to open the eyes, to glance at. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is pulaf. 

Dr. Macdonald's identification of this and the lightning stem is, of 
course, disposed of by the comparison of this material with that assembled 
in item 295. 

In terms of color psychology we are here dealing with the imreduced 
ray of light, the union of the spectrum colors in white. 

Furthermore we are dealing with a singularly elemental people, but little 
advanced in the arts, not yet emerged from the stone age. The back- 



330 THE) POIyYNESlAN WANDERINGS. 

ground of their color life is brown — brown mats to sleep upon, brown thatch 
to shield them from the gods and from the rain, these the browns of mar- 
cescent leaves, brown tapering trunks of coconuts, the brown of seasoned 
hard wood in the club without which in hand life is not long to be lived, 
brown skins to look upon in love or hate and to live within. Not merely 
the deductions of philology these remarks ; the eye trained in color values has 
looked upon these scenes, and those who have gazed upon John LaFarge's 
sketches from the South Sea have seen a suite of studies in brown. 

Their simple arts rarely produce a white ; I recall but the white of siapo 
made from the bast of Broussonetia papyrifera or Pipturus incanus when 
retted in still waters and bleached in the sun. It is beyond the resources 
of their few pigments to produce a synthetic white. The red of a few 
mineral oxides, a purple from a sea mollusc, the yellows of the turmeric, the 
black of soot, are all that so advanced a people as the Samoans might spread 
upon a palette. Mix these and brown results. 

Bathed in white light they see little white in nature. Their eyes no 
more than ours may rest upon the sun undazzled by its glory long enough 
to separate from its heat and glare any true sense of color. But there is 
one object which never fails to yield a white, the moon. Therefore we are 
not surprised to note in what number of tongues of these remote islands 
the word which means to shine, to be bright with the undissolved light 
beam, should be used to designate the moon. There are fewer exceptions 
than would appear. Niue alone among the Polynesian tongues in this 
record has the moon in this pula shine. But a glance farther along at the 
notes upon item 342 will show that these languages which here omit the 
moon present it in that record as masina, again the shining one, the most 
conspicuous object in the perfect light, composite white. 

Few of these forms in our three nesiote areas but are self-explanatory. 
In Rotuma we find the metathesis so characteristic of that language. This, 
too, I am convinced is found in Aneityum laav-lav. 

The Semitic triliteron is brk. While the resemblance in sense is very 
close and there is a resemblance in form covering two elements of the 
consonant skeleton, I hesitate before accepting so violent a mutation as 
that involved, f-k, when we put alongside oi brk the Proto-Samoan plf . 

285. 

bong, black, dark ; bongi, bong, darkness, night, day in calendar reckoning ; 

bongien, darkness; bong, a dark black powder used in painting. 

Fakaafo, Niue, Uvea, Vate, Fotuna, Tahiti, Manahiki: po, night. 

Samoa : po, night, day in calendar, blind ; pongipongi, twilight ; 

pongisd, darkness. Futuna : po, night, day in calendar; pongia, 

benighted. Maori: po, night, a season; pongia, benighted. 

Hawaii, Mangaia : />o, night, darkness. Marquesas: ^0, night, 

day in calendar, darkness. Mangareva : po, night, darkness, 

obscurity. Rapanui : po, night, late ; po raa, day in calendar. 

Nukuoro: po, pongi, night. Paumotu: matapo, blind (as 

elsewhere in Polynesia) ; potangotango, darkness. Aniwa : kopo, 

night ; pouri, dark. Bukabuka : popo, black. Tonga : bo, night. 

Nuguria, Sikayana: bo, po, night, dark. 

Viti: mbongi, night; mbombo, blind. Rotuma: boni, night. 



DATA AND NOTES. 331 

Nggao, Belaga, Nggela, Vaturanga, Bugotu, Omba, Sesake : mbongi, 
night. Fagani, Alite, New Georgia, Guadalcanar, Epi : bongi, id. 
Sinaugoro, Galoma, Kiriwina : bogi, id. Marina, Southeast Epi : 
pongi, id. Keapara, Galoma, Rubi: /)o^i, id. Western Epi: 
ombongi, id. Bierian: im-bong, id. Malo: 6ow^, id. Save: 
pong, id. Duke of York, Matupit, Kabakada, Pala, Baravon : 
bung, id. Malekula: ambung, id. Tanna: la-ben, id. Santo: 
pon, id. Santo Wulua: poni, id. Maewo, Gog, Motlav, 
Norbarbar: kmbwon, id. Arag, Vuras, Lakon: kpwon, id. 
Mota: mpwon, id. Lo: kwon, id. Volow: nggmbwon, id. 
Aneityum: ping, night; aping, black; poing, dark. Motu, 
Rubi: boi, night. Dobu: boiboi, id. Vaturanga: bora, black. 
Baki: bongian,m^t. Deni: m&o, black; mbu, night. Nggela: 
pungi, darkness. Bugotu : puni, darkness. Bugotu : puni, 
dark. Buka: abung, evening; boni, night. Pokau, Sariba, 
Tubetube : boni, night. Baravon : bobotoi, darkness. Lamassa : 
mbung, dark. Moanus : pong, vong, day in calendar. Santo : 
pon, id. Baki: bongo, id. Bierian: bong, id. Eromanga: 
po-arap, evening. Murua: bogu, night. Kiviri: pom, id. 
Mukawa: pomai, id. 

Java, Salayer: bungi, night. Macassar: boetta, dark; boeta, blind. 
Teor: pogaragara, night. 

Arabic : fahuma, to be black ; fuhum, black ; fahma-t, night. 

(Darkness — Samoa: pouliuli. Niue, Futuna, Nuguria: pouli. 

Tonga: bouli. Rarotonga, Manahiki: pouri. Tahiti: poiri. 
Aniwa: ouri (vide sup.). Hawaii: poeleele. Marquesas: 
potana (vide sup.). Fakaafo, Vate, Maori: po.) 

The Proto-Samoan stem is pongis, which appears in Samoan pongisa. 
By a continuous process of terminal abrasion we reach successive operative 
stems in pongi, pong and po, all of which will readily be fotind in this record, 
and all except the closed stem pong in Polynesia. 

The primal sense is the absence of light, just as the common name for 
day, aso, is mediately a sun term and ultimately a word for light. This 
absence of light is most conspicuous in life by the night ; a very easy tropical 
change establishes the night word out of the dark word. 

It marks an advance in capacity for thinking in analogies to recognize 
in black color and in the black pigment, in which color knowledge first 
becomes practical, the absence of color, therefore the absence of light. 
Physiology drawing upon optical physics and the psychology of the color 
sense in equal drafts is but lately beginning to discover that some rod and 
cone structure of the retina is responsive to color stimulus and other to the 
varying stimulus of the amount of light. Yet certain of our islanders 
have seen the analogy; Efate bong is the black pigment. 

To all comes alike the darkness after the day. In the crudity of island 
life there may come to almost anyone the accident of a life all warfare 
which may bring night upon the sight, the sunset forever of the blind. To 
far too many helpless innocents comes ophthalmia neonatorum. Hence po 
darkness (more commonly in the composite matapo eye-dark) means also 
blind. 



332 THE POI.YNKSIAN WANDERINGS. 

Daytime is life time, its joys are joys only when the eye can see clearly. 
When the shadows snap suddenly upon the swiftly fading glow of the sunset 
the cruel gods are abroad, man in black terror cowers with his kin in a 
gloomy home about the fat smoke and dull glow of his string of kindled 
candlenuts. From the dusk of evening until the eastern gleam he will not 
venture from his shelter except that, under the pricking of his scatomantic 
dread, in some middle hour he slinks out under the wheeling stars and to 
the beach where in the darkness and the swirl of the tide not even the 
whistling gods may see that which might work him harm. Man may live 
heedless days, but when it comes to the reckoning it is the nights he counts, 
the nights he has lived through. Here, there, and well nigh everywhere in 
the Pacific world, po as night means calendar day. The Maori goes yet 
farther: po may mean to him a season, it may mean the obscurity of 
eternity. 

We now pass to the consideration of the forms of this stem beyond the 
Polynesian limits. Our records are too scanty to reveal in Melanesia the 
existence of the pongis stem, but pongi is very common, pong is of equal 
frequency, po is rare. 

We observe a group of forms in which the initial consonant is subjected 
to a wide yet systematic variation. This peculiarity is known as the Mela- 
nesian q. It is a composite of k and b and w; in this composite k may 
become ngg, b may become mb or p. It is not to be interpreted as the effort 
on the part of Melanesians to compass an unwonted Polynesian sound, for 
it is of far greater frequency in Melanesian words for which we can find no 
affiliation with Polynesia. Rather are we to regard it as showing the 
struggle in sound evolution by a primitive people in the genesis of their 
speech who are coming into first possession of a labial mute and whose 
untrained buccal muscles reveal to us the wrestling. And if we can thus 
look upon the birth of one sound in human speech may we not indulge 
ourselves in the fancy that man went through a similar struggle to acquire 
each of the consonant sounds in his phonetic system ? At last across ages, 
uncountable ages, we see the first of speaking men lifting himself above the 
crying animal when he is teaching the muscles of his tongue to move its 
tip here and there within the mouth to give him some clumsy / or fugitive 
r which is to give him speech, and upon speech knowledge, and perhaps to 
some chosen ones of his remote descendants the promise of intelligence. 

It is not without interest that we are in a position to observe the Mela- 
nesian rounding out his phonetic range by this last gift of the labial mute, 
even though it strike our ears as anything but sweet concord of sounds. 
In the Polynesian material here under discussion we encounter the Mela- 
nesian q but twice besides its presence in the variation of this stem, namely : 
nafa (157) a drum Malekula Uripiv nambwi; and 'upenga (151) a net 
Motlav kmbweng Volow nggmbweng. An index of its frequency in Mela- 
nesian will be seen in the fact that in Codrington's Mota dictionary there 
are no less than 337 principal entries under ^'-initial, and yet Mota has 
already attained to the possession of v and p. 

The Aneityum forms give in poing (perhaps a 1243 metathesis of pongi) 
the transition to ping, the only wide variant from the radical 0. Motu boi is 
bongi with elision of ng; this is found so uniformly (309, 332, 346, 350) that 



DATA AND NOTES. 333 

we have^but a single instance (151 ng-n) in this language of any other 
treatment of the palatal nasal, and that a doubtful one. Vaturanga bora, 
Baravon bobotoi, and Eromanga po-arap are evident composites on the po 
stem. Deni is the only language embraced within our inquiry in which the 
attempt has been made to differentiate po sense variety by vowel variation. 

In Indonesia we find the pongi stem in Java and Salayer, the other identi- 
fications are po composites. 

Revert now to our Proto-Samoan stem pongis, skeletonized to pngs. 
What can Semitic fhm have to do therewith? 

286. 
bon, bono, to be shut, closed, stopped ; bono-ti, bonu-ti, bunu-ti, to shut, 
to close, to plug, to stop, to block up. 

Samoa: puni, a place inclosed to catch fish; pupuni, to shut, to 
inclose; punitia, to be shut up, inclosed. Niue: pupuni, to 
shut in, to inclose; ponoti, to cork, to calk, to stop up, to 
close. Uvea: pupunu, to shut in, to inclose. Nuguria: 
hakapunu, to stop up. Maori: punt, stopped up. Tahiti: 
puni, to be inclosed, to hide. Hawaii: ptmi, to inclose. 

Mangaia : puni, to hide. Mangareva : pupuni, id. Paumotu : 
punipuni, to take shelter. Marquesas : pupuni, punipuni, to 
hide oneself, to squat. Nukuoro: pono, to shut. Tonga: 
buni, closed, shut; bubuni, bunibuni, bubunu, bunubunu, to 
close, to shut. Fotuna: buna, to block up. 

Viti: vuni, hid, concealed; mbonota, vonota, to stop up water by a 
dam ; vono, a canoe plank. 

Epi: mbin, to block up. Mota: wono, wonot, to close, to fill up, 
to make solid, to oppress. 

Malay: bum, to hide, to conceal. 

Hebrew : baham, bahan, to shut, to cover, to conceal. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is punit. 

The insecurity of the vowel in the Polynesian is of no little importance. 
Niue ponoti is Samoan fonoti. Uvea gives us punu, Tonga bunu for puni. 
Nukuoro pono recalls Niue. Fotuna buna is a yet wider variant. In Viti 
we find not only vuni for puni, but in the homogenetic of fono we have vono 
and mbono, which again recalls Niue. Epi mbin is identifiable. 

Efat6 has not the exact analogue of puni, which would be buni. But 
its bono recalls Niue, its bunu recalls Tonga. 

It is not until we examine the Mota words that we begin to see the reason 
for all this shifting ; ivono, wonot has the fono form but the puni sense. It 
functions as a transition form to account for all this variation heretofore 
noted ; it points to a time when punit and fonot were themselves divided 
by so slight a distinction as to escape alien notice. The Polynesian has 
yet another root meaning to plug, to stop up, monot (71). These three 
have the common factor not, or nit as a slight variant. The conclusion 
is irresistible that the general sense of closing inheres in not, that the other 
and variable elements are in some sense limiting. Now since we find pu 
in the sense of a self-existent hole, pu-nit is hole-closing when the hole is 
always there. The /o-stem we find in foa, to chip as a hole in an eggshell, 



334 THE poIvYnESian wanderings. 

to break the head; fo then is a hole not self-existent, but the result of acci- 
dent or design; fo-not is hole-closing when the hole has been made where 
it does not belong, therefore fono is to patch. The root mo we find in moa 
and more specifically in moalili, the soft flesh in the round hole which 
appears when the operculum is prized out of the shell of Turbo petholatus, 
momo'ulu clitoris (cf. Maori kont a loop, bight, or fold) ; mo-not is the closing 
of a round hole, putting a plug into the open eye of a coconut as the com- 
mon water-container. 

Malay bunt, in form close to the Polynesian puni, has a sense, a particular 
result of closing upon the object included, which reappears not in Proto- 
Samoan but in the Tongafiti migration in Tahiti, the Marquesas, Mangaia, 
Mangareva, the Paumotu. 

If we confine ourselves to the Proto-Samoan stem punit, pnt is in no 
agreement with Semitic bhtn, far less is the not root which has just been 
evolved from these several forms. 

287. 
borau, to ride, to be carried (on a canoe, ship, horse, vehicle or other thing), 
to voyage. 
Samoa : fdlau, a voyage, a ship, to go a voyage, to die. Tonga : 
folau, a voyage, a fleet, a voyager, to sail. Futtma : folau, 
a navigator, to navigate, to go a voyage. Nine: folau, to 
commit suicide by jumping into the sea. Uvea: folau, to 
navigate. Fotuna: ko-forau, to go a voyage. Moriori: 
wharau, a ship. Rapanui: horau, to hasten, to run to. 
Viti : vondo, to embark, to go on board, to ride. 
Matupit: parau, a ship. Ambrym: bulbul, a boat. Malekula: 
foro, to navigate. Mota: walawalau, to paddle all together; 
walaua, to collect things for a voyage. 
Tagalog, Visayas: parau, a boat. Malay: prahu, prau, id. 
Arabic : markab', a ship, a vessel. Bthiopic : markab, id. 
The sequence of the Bfate definition is, of course, inverted, the voyaging 
sense being primal, and the extension of the definition as "to be carried 
. . . on a horse, a vehicle" can have had significance only since the imme- 
diately modern introduction by Europeans of horses and their concomitants. 
A strange admixture is twice found in Nuclear Polynesia. The word in 
Samoan which means to sail means also to die . In Nine the only signification 
of folau is to commit suicide by jumping into the sea. The vocable is of the 
most obscure ; probably a distinct word in all but form is involved, for we 
can not imagine any seafaring race so pessimistic as to see death the goal 
of their voyaging and thus to develop such a secondary significance. 

In Melanesia we find two distinct epochs of the stem. The earlier and 
more worn phase is shown in Malekula foro. This forms an easy transition 
to Viti vondo so far as the vowel element is concerned, and the l-nd muta- 
tion is not without warrant in our table of consonant mutation. Anei- 
tyum bulbul is a form which to abrasion adds vowel degeneration. The 
Mota walau is nearer to the folau stem in form, its two senses are easily 
recognizable particulars of the general meaning, and, so far as the general 
theory of duplication may be considered to hold in Mota, the duplicated 
walawalau shows the division of the stem elements as fola-u. Matupit 



DATA AND NOTES. 335 

parau is of most modern type ; in form and meaning it is exactly Indonesian ; 
I have no hesitation in assigning it to the Post- Polynesian period and to 
Malaysian rovers, all the more since Matupit lies in the jaws of the eastern 
gateway. The explanation of Moriori wharau eludes our search. With 
this exception the word is Nuclear Polynesian, and Moriori is a curious sur- 
vival of an uncomprehended migration earlier than the current Maori, before 
whose coming it was driven onward to the chill of the Chatham Islands. 

It is impossible to reconcile with this stem of fl the Semitic mrkb. Not 
only is the latter of a far more complicated nature, but the only point in 
which it suggests fl is in the r and the b, and these are not only in an order 
the reverse of fl but they are parted as well by k, one of the most permanent 
of consonants as it is one of the first acquired. 

288. 
bulo ki, bulosi, bulusi, bulisi, to turn, to twist ; tafolo, to be turned, twisted ; 
tafulus, to be turned; bolonga, tafilonga, to turn itself (as a 
thing sinking in water) ; bulora, filora, twisted, confused (as a 
lot of things turned or twisted about). 
Samoa : fuli, to turn over, to capsize ; fulijuli, to roll over and over ; 
mafuli, to be turned over, upset ; tafuli, to turn over. Tonga : 
fulihi, to turn over, to upset, to reverse ; mafuli, to be capsized ; 
tafuli, to move around. Futuna: fuli, fulisi, to turn, to over- 
turn, to reverse; mafuli, id. Nine: fuluhi, to turn, to overturn; 
mafuluhi, turned over. Uvea: fuli, fulihi, to turn over, to 
overthrow. Hawaii : huli, to turn in general, to turn over and 
about. Maori : huri, to turn around, to overturn, to roll over ; 
hurihuri, to turn over in the mind, to ponder. Tahiti : huri, 
to turn over, to roll. Sikayana : huri, to turn over. Rapanui : 
huri, hakahuri, to turn over; tahuri, to pirouette. Rarotonga: 
uri, to turn over, to roll over. Marquesas : hui, to turn over, 
to roll. 
Viti : voli, to go around ; volivoli, to revolve. 

Aneityum : uhuri, to dig or root as a pig. Motu : huro, a grindstone. 
Malay: pulas, to wring, to wrist, to turn, to turn round, to turn aside 
out of the way. Java: />m/w, id. Malagasy: I'owory, round, 
circular. 
Hebrew: palas, to turn round, to twist, to spin. Arabic: falakat, 
a spindle. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is fulls. 

We are therefore in no doubt as to the Efate forms involving the sibilant. 
The remaining forms may with varying degrees of certainty be connected 
with forms in s. 

In Polynesian, as is quite common, the fulis stem is readily discoverable 
in Nuclear Polynesia. The Tongafiti languages use the abraded form and 
betray no recollection of the earlier closed stem. 

The Viti voli is not quite satisfactory as an identification. Its definite 
transitive is voli-ta. This may suggest a stem volit, yet in the Viti verb we 
can never be quite certain that ta may not have acquired sufficient identity 
as a mere termination to be applied to any open stem without consideration 
of what former closing consonant may have been abraded. 



336 THE POIvYNBSIAN WANDERINGS. 

Our Melanesian material is so scanty and so widely separated, in form 
and in sense so uncertain, that we include Aneityimi and Motu without 
argument, but solely on the score of resemblance. 

In Indonesia, on the contrary, we find in Malay and in Java the most 
satisfactory identifications, and Malagasy quite probable. 

The Semitic pis and PoljTiesian fls are distinctly coordinated through 
Malay pis. They may therefore be accepted as at least resemblances. 

289. 

bulu-ti, to plaster, to overspread with some sticky substance (as oil, lime, 
paint, pitch), to cover with a plaster or poultice (as a wound) ; 
nabulu, a plaster; bubulu, bulubulut, buloki, mabulu, to be 

sticky (as a plaster). 

Samoa : pulu, gum, breadfruit gum, glue, coconut husk, resin ; puluti, 
to glue, to pitch ; pupulu, to apply gum, to interpose, to mediate 
(cf . puluvanga) ; pulupulu, a large cloth about the whole body ; 
pulupuluta'i, to cover up so as to take care of. Tonga : hulu, 
a gum used in calking canoes, coconut husk; buluji, birdlime, 
paste, plaster, to paste; huluhulu, a shawl, a cloak, to cover the 
back and shoulders ; bubulu, slimy, adhesive. Futuna : pulu, 
coconut husk, gum, resin, pitch, all sticky stuff; puluti, to 
cement, to plaster, to pitch; pupulu, pitch; pulupulu, cloak, 
wrapper. Nine : pulu, coconut husk, fiber, sennit. Uvea : 
pulu, pitch. Hawaii: pupulu, adhesive, soft; pulu, scales 
from fern fronds used as plugging or stuffing material. Maori : 
puru, a plug, a cork, to plug up, to stuff up, to calk. Tahiti : 
puru, coconut husk. Rarotonga: puru, coconut fiber used 
as a plug for calking, anything used to calk with. Mangareva : 
puru, coconut husk, the almond of the pandanus. Rapanui : 
puru, a covering, to cover. Marquesas: puu, a band of tow 
made of coconut fiber. 

Viti : mbulu, an external application, a thing that covers or buries, 
coconut husk; mbuluta, to cover with earth, to bury, to repair 
an injury, to apply an external remedy; bulubulu, a grave, 
that which covers or buries, a peace offering. Rotuma : pul, 
gum ; pulpul, gummy. 

New Britain: pulpul, a cloth wrapped round the body. Mota: 
pul, pulu, gum, to stick; pulut, to stick together; gapulut, glue, 
paint. Pala : bulut, to smear. Merlav : mbulut, to make to 
stick ; gambulut, glue. Norbarbar : vambulmbul, to make to stick. 
Malekula : burji, to plaster; buruj, sticky. Malo : bulia, to stick. 

Java: pulut, gum, birdlime. Malay: pulur, the pith of plants, 
farina. 

Hebrew: kapar, to cover, to cover over; koper, pitch. Arabic: 
"afar a, to cover over, to pardon (sin). 

The Bfate words are all in satisfactory accord with one or other of 
several stems which in Polynesia interlace within the abraded form pulu. 
These we shall examine with the aid of the Proto-Samoan stem where that 
is discoverable. 



DATA AND NOTES. 337 

pulut, gum, pitch, sticky, to stick. Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Uvea, 

Viti (?), Rotuma, Efatd, Mota, Merlav, Norbarbar, Malekula, 

Malo, Hawaii. 
pulut (this ascription resting solely on Samoa pulupuluta'i), a large 

article of clothing. Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Viti (?), New 

Britain. 
puluv, to interpose, to mediate. Samoa. 
pulu, coconut husk. Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Viti, Maori, 

Tahiti, Rarotonga, Mangareva, Marquesas, Hawaii. 

The pulut stem is thus seen to belong to the Proto-Samoan migration. 
If the identification in Hawaii is good we have this stem to add to our 
fragments of evidence showing a Proto-Samoan migration from Samoa to 
Hawaii. 

The pulu stem is common to both migrations. 

In Melanesia the pulut stem preserves its t except in Malo. 

In Indonesia the Java pulut is exact in form and sense. Malay pulur 
may be connected with the pulu stem, but the sense is almost impossible 
to reconcile. 

The Semitic kpr can not be said to stand in strong likeness to Poly- 
nesian pit. 

290. 

fafine, bite, fite, matu, woman, female. 

Samoa: fafine, mafine, a woman, wife, female; afafine, daughter; 
tamafafine, id . ; tuafafine, sister. Tonga : fefine, fafine, woman ; 
ofefine, daughter; tuofefine, sister. Fakaafo, Futuna, Uvea, 
Sikayana, Vate, Moiki: fafine, woman, female. I,iueniua: 
fafini, id. Niue: fifine, id. Nuguria: tahine,wiie. Maori, 
Hawaii: wahine, woman, female. Tahiti, Manahiki: vahine, id. 
Marquesas: vahme,vehme, id. Rarotonga, Tubuai, Bukabuka : 
vaine, id. Tongarewa: oahine, id. Nukuoro: ahine, fefine, id. 
Mangareva: veine, ahine, aine, id. Aniwa: tafine, fine, id. 
Fotuna: fine, woman, female. Paumotu: vahine, a wife; 

mohine, a woman. Uvea : finematua, mistress. Tahiti : mahine, 
daughter. Tonga: fine, women. Mangareva: mohine, 

daughter. Maori: hine, girl. Rapanui: nuehine, old woman; 
tamaahine, daughter. 

Viti: yalewa, alewa, woman. Rotuma: hoina, id. 

Solomon Islands : /a/jm, a sister. Fagani: /e/ene, woman. New 
Ireland (Duffield) : fifine, feefeen, id. Makura, Arag, Omba, Uni, 
Kabadi, Sinaugoro, Hula, Keapara: T^awwe, id. Motawavine, 
tavine, id. Nggela, Bugotu: vaivine, id. Belaga: vaivine, 
vinekama, id. Dukeof York, New Britain :wawwa, id. Tavara, 
Wagawaga, Awalama: wawine, id. Taupota, Wedau, Galavi, 
Boniki: wavine, id. Dobu: waine, id. Suau: waihin, id. 
Mukawa: wasike, id. Baravon: wawin, id. Roro, Uni, 
Galoma: babine, id. Oiun: babin, id. Mekeo: papie, id. 
Rubi : ^awwe, id. Nada :ima, id. Murua: wne, id. Kiriwina: 
■vivila, id. Port Moresby, Motu : hahine, id. Redscar Bay : 



338 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

ahine, id. Ambrym: vihin, id. Suau, Sariba, Tubetube: 
sine, id. Dobu: sinesine, id. Mugula: sina, id. Dobu: 
ine, id. Eromanga: sivin, id. Moanus: pein, id. Uea: 
in, a girl. Nifilole: singenda, woman. Pala: hahin, id. 
Volow: linggmhweven, id. Motlav: Ikmbivovin, id. Lo: 
lakwavina, id. Mota : wW, feminine. Malo : •z^amm, woman, 
female. Malekula : ne-ven, old woman, young woman ; febin, 
female ; nev-seven, woman, female ; febinin, man's sister. Tanna : 
nau venein), man's sister. Baki: buvino, female; kovivine, 
man's sister. Bierian: fafine, woman, female; fefine, man's 
sister; buvino, female. 
Sulu: fina, a woman. Massaratty: fineh, id. Mayapo: gefineh, id. 
Ahtiago: vina, id. Teor: mewina, id. Bouton: bawine, id. 
Java: winih, the female of animals. Sanguir: mahoweni, 
woman. Waigiou Alfuros: 6w, id. Malay: 6m*, id. Gah: 
binei, id. Cajeli: umbinei, id. . Salibabo: babineh, id. Mysot, 
Waigiou: pin, id. Gani: mapin, id. Saparua: pipina, id. 
Liang, Morella, Lariko, Awaiya, Caimarian : mahina, id. Teluti : 
ihina, id. Madura: bahini, id. Salayer: baini, id. Batu- 
merah: mainai, id. Silong: benaing, id. Macassar: banie, 
daughter. Ilocan : 6a6a*, woman. Malagasy : ■z/at^y, female ; 
vehivavy, woman. 

Of the Bfat6 forms fafine is in full accord with the Polynesian. Our 
author proposes fite as a mutant of fine; the material shows but a single 
instance of n-t mutation, namu (328) mosquito Alo Teqel torn; fite and 
bite, if coordinated with fine, stand by themselves in a class apart in the 
handling of this stem. 

The primal stem is fine, and this it is which carries the sex sense. We find 
it in independent existence in Tonga, Uvea, Maori, Fotuna, Aniwa, Uea, 
Mota, Tanna, Murua, and in composition away from the type forms in 
Belaga vinekama and in Moanus. 

The most common form in which this stem appears is fafine. Neglecting 
the range of variation of the /, fafine is found throughout Polynesia and 
Melanesia, less frequently in Indonesia. Upon this as a secondary stem 
several compounds are erected. 

Mafine is a secondary stem which is found in Samoa, the Paumotu, 
Tahiti, and Mangareva. 

T a fine is found in Aniwa and Mota. 

Sifine is found in Malekula nev-seven, Eromanga sivin, and metathetic 
in Ambrym vihin. 

In Volow, Motlav and Lo we find a composite of fine with another stem 
which it is impossible to identify. Nifilole singenda seems scarcely possible 
of correlation, and Viti alewa is also anomalous. 

The Indonesian forms are readily reducible to the foregoing forms, fine, 
the most common, and mafine more frequent in reference to fafine than in 
the Pacific. 

Macdonald's explanation is that fafine is a composite wherein the first 
member is human being and the second characterizes it as feminine. We 
may not yet isolate the particular sense of fa, ma, ta, which we find in our 



DATA AND NOTES. 339 

three island areas, but of the three only one and that the least frequent 
one, ta, is susceptible of association with any word meaning man, tangata 
of the human being, while in tane we have the sex antithesis of fine. Dr. 
Macdonald's effort is labored but unconvincing. 

291. 
fai, vai, nifai, noai, n'uai, n'wai, nai, n'ai, ai, water. 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Nukuoro, Tahiti, 
Rarotonga,Tongarewa, Marquesas, Mangareva.Fotuna, Nuguria, 
Vate: vai, water. Rapanui: vai, juice, liquid, water. Aniwa: 
vai, tavai, water. Maori, Hawaii: wai, id. Sikayana: wai, 
wuai, id. 

Viti: wai, water. Rotuma: vai, voi, id. 

Motu : vai, river. Omba, Ulawa, San Cristoval, Mwala, Saa, Bulu- 
laha, Arag : wai, water. Sinaugoro, Hula, Keapara, Galoma : 
Twai, river. Moanus : wat, water. Alite: fe«a*, id. Aneityum: 
in-wai, id. Nifilole : wot, id. Tubetube: wanZa, id. Sariba, 
Massim: waira, id. Taupota, Wedau: waira, water, river. 
Kiriwina: waia, river. Misima: weil, river; weweil, water. 
Panaieti: wel, river; wewel, water. Tubetube: wawei, water. 
Mugula, Suau, Awalama, Kwagila: goila, id. Tavara: goila, 
water, river. Sesake, Southeast Epi : noai, water. Bierian : 
nuai, id. Fpi, Baki: Me, id. Ambrym, Uni: we, id. Nengone, 
Duaru: wi, id. Yengin, Balade: ue, id. Murare: qui, id. 
Nikete: que, id. Malekula: n-ue, id. Tanna: nui, id. 

Eromanga: WM, id. Motlav, Volow: mfce, id. Maewo, Merlav: 
mbei, id. Roro: bei, id. Bugotu: 7nbea, id. Nggela: beti, id. 
Roro, Mekeo, Uni, Pokau: vet, id. Doura: vei, water, river. 
Kabadi : veina, water. Vanua Lava, Norbarbar, Lo : pe, water. 
Mota: pei, id. Marina: pei, tei, id. Baravon: tava, id. 
Nada, Murua: rai, river. 

Burn, Ceram, Salibabo, Cajeli, Mayapo, Massaratty, Amblaw, Sapa- 
rua, Ahtiago, Solor, Sulu : wai, water. Waigiou Alfuros : tte, 
we, id. Allor: we, id. Togean Islands: ue, id. Rotti: 
ue(oee), id. Baju:TOi, id. Vaiqueno East: /^o^,id. Waigiou: 
wayer, id. Gani: waiyr, id. Mysot: wayr, id. Liang: 
wehr, id. Teor: weha, id. Batumerah, Morella: weyl, id. 
Awaiya, Caimarian: waeZt, id. Teluti: we/o, id. Dorey: woar, 
id . Kaioa Island : woya, id . Malay : ayer, id . Menado : aer, id . 
Champa : aya, id. Coram: arr, id. Silong: awaen,id. 

Hebrew: me', water. Ethiopic: mai, id. 

In general I am most reluctant to admit the possibility of diphthongs 
in Polynesia, at least in Nuclear Polynesia. In the case of this word, vai 
has always been received by my ear as two vowel sounds and in perfect 
distinction from vae the foot. Yet without receding from my position in 
regard of diphthongs we shall find it a great simplification of our analysis 
of the vai mutants to adopt a working hypothesis that, even if not properly 
a diphthong in Polynesian speech, the ai of vai has been accepted by its 
Melanesian borrowers as of diphthongal value. The need for this assump- 



340 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

tion is that vat undergoes a series of vowel changes which would not be 
possible unless its at were regarded as a vocalic unit and susceptible of 
variation as such. 

The Efate forms are reducible to four types, vai, fai, wai, ai; we shall 
discuss our collected material in relation to these types, this discussion 
referring only to the initial consonant. 

vai. This is the most common type in Polynesia, is absent from Mela- 
nesia, and is found but once in Indonesia, Baju voi. 

fai. Efate alone shows this type. In general it is to be said that the 
spirant rarely alters from sonant to surd, our only examples being Za-z^a (307) 
very Fagani rafa, and vivini (242) to crow Ambrym nofin to whistle. The 
change from surd to sonant is of great frequency. 

wai. This is found in Polynesia only in Maori, Hawaii, Viti, Sikayana. 
It is the most common type in Melanesia and Indonesia. In the former 
it is found in Omba, Ulawa, San Cristoval, Saa, Arag, Bululaha, Moanus, 
Aneityum, Nifilole, Baki, Ambrym, Nengone, Duaru, Yengin, Balade. 

A secondary Efate form is noai, n'uai, n'wai, the n probably functioning 
as article. The same prefix, and probably of the same value, we find with 
wai in Sesake, Bierian, Southeast Epi (probably the Bierian), Malekula, 
Tanna, and Eromanga. These n-forms are found nowhere outside of 
Melanesia. 

ai. This type is exclusively Efat^. It is normal to find the labials when 
in mutation so extensively — ^we should interpolate the aspiration form of 
this series in Vaiqueno, hoi — progressing to extinction ; yet this Efate type 
is our only instance in this stem. Over against this we set for comparison 
Eromanga, which has lost its radical vowel and exists only by the complete 
alteration through the w semivowel to vocalic u; the chain is a complete 
one in the links Bierian, Malekula, Eromanga. 

We have already examined a secondary -wai type in n. We find yet 
another secondary wai type in fe, a prefix whose purpose does not appear. 
It occurs in Alite and in New Caledonia in the languages of Murare and 
Nikete. This, too, does not pass outside of Melanesia. 

Before entering upon the discussion of forms consonantly less obvious 
it will be proper here to engage upon the consideration of the vowel forms. 

ai. Polynesia altogether, Viti, Rotuma, Efate, much of Melanesia, most 

of Indonesia. 
oi. Rotuma, Nifilole; Baju, Vaiqueno East, Kaioa Island. 
e. Baki, Ambrym, Yengin, Balade, Nikete, Malekula ; Waigiou Alfuros, 

Allor, Togean Islands, Rotti. 
i. Nengone, Duaru, Murare, Tanna. 

Having thus acquainted ourselves with the vowel variability we may 
recur to the consideration of a second group of Melanesian homogenetics. 
In these the vowel has changed to e, or to ei which is the same in effect. 
The consonantal change is from spirant to mute, to b, mb, p. The table 
of variations will afford abundant store of examples of this change. We 
may, then, having confirmed both consonant and vowel mutation, accept 
Mota, Marina, pet; Maewo, Merlav, mbei; Vanua Lava, Norbarbar, Lo, 
pe; Motlav, Volow, mbe; Bugotu, mbea. Marina has not only pei but a 



DATA AND NOTES. 341 

synonym tei as well ; we are without evidence to support a mutation from 
labial to lingual among the mutes and will not venture to suggest that tei 
is homogenetic with pei, but it certainly means the same thing. This 
may explain the Nggela beti, a determinant compound of the two stems 
which, among others, have one like meaning (14 Journal of the Polynesian 
Society, 41). We are left with Baravon tava; it is permissible to see in 
va an abraded derivative of vai; the ta may be associable with Marina 
tei, with Nggela beti and, even more remote, with Aniwa tavai, of course 
with the possibility that in the last form the ta may prove to be the weak 
demonstrative functioning as article. 

We have already examined such of the Indonesian variants of the vai 
stem as have been found in concord with the general mutation. There yet 
remain for us distinctively Indonesian types of mutation. These involve 
assumption of a final liquid. Based on the wai type we may follow this 
from Waigiou wayer through Gani, Mysot, Batumerah, Morella, Awaiya, 
Caimarian, Teluti, Dorey, Liang, Teor. A shorter series based on the ai 
type begins in Malay ayer and runs through Menado, Champa, and Goram, 
with Silong awaen in some way connected. 

The initial consonant of the vai stem has run a long course, even to extinc- 
tion, in our three island areas, but nowhere has it approached an m which 
might give warrant for accepting the proposed Semitic identifications. 

292. 
fanua, inhabited country, land. 

Samoa: fanua, the land, the earth, the ground. Aniwa: fanua, 
the whole earth, the land, the soil. Fotuna: fanua, land, 
country. Futuna : fenua, people, race, nation, land, country. 
Uvea, Tahiti, Sikayana, Moiki, Fakaafo, Vate: fenua, land, 
country. Nuguria: henua, id. Marquesas: fenua, henua, id. 
Rapanui: heenua, id.; puheenua, soil. Paumotu, Manahiki: 
henua, land, country. Maori: whenua, the whole earth, a 
country, land, the ground, the soil. Bukabuka: whenua, 
land. Rarotonga, Bukabuka : entto, id. Mangareva: ewwa, 
land, used to denote shallow places in the sea. Tonga : fonua, 
the whole earth, a country, the land, the soil. Nine : fonua, 
land, soil, mold. Hawaii: honua, id. 
Viti: vanua, a land, a region. Rotuma: hanua, land. 
Arag, Vanua Lava, Marina, Maewo: vanua, land. Sesake: vanua, 
a place, a village. Malo : vanua, land, house. Mota : vanua, 
a place, island, land, village. Kabadi : xiamta, village. Pokau: 
vanua, land, village. Uni: vanua, land. Omba: vanue, 
land. Lakon: vanu, id. Baki: venuo, land, country. Duke 
of York: wanua, id. Galoma: banua, village. Mekeo: 
pangua, land, village. Panaieti: pangua, land. Ugi: vanua, 
hdnua, id. Laur: hanua, a place. Lambell: 'hanua, id.; 
hanua, a town. Motu: hanua, a village. Tubetube: ianua, 
land, village. Suau: eanua, village. Lamassa: fdnu, a 
place; fanu, a town. Bierian: fanua, land, country. Roro: 
anua, land. Rubi: anu, village. Epi: venua, land. Santo: 
venua, a house, a village. Malekula: fenu, land. Retan: 



342 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

vene, island. Saa: henna, henue, a village. Vanikoro: fenua, 
land . Fagani : finua, a place . Nggela : mbona, id . Norbarbar : 
vonio, island. Pak, Sasar, Vuras: vono, land. Leon: vono, 
country. Motlav: na-vno, land. Baki: vonua, land. Sinau- 
goro, Hula, Keapara: vanuga, village. 

Malay : banua, a land, a country. Bicol : banua, a town. Visayas : 
banua, a village. Bugi: ivanua, land. Malay: benua, a 
region. Togean Islands: benua, a house. 

Hebrew: banah, to build, as a house; banu', built; binyaha, building. 

Dr. Macdonald makes this note : 

The Santo word has best preserved the primary meaning "house" or "building" ; then 
a country, district or land is called bdntia, or fantia, because, like a house or village 
(or building), it is the dwelling-place of men, or place of buildings. 

And all this because Hebrew banah is to build! As to the primary 
meaning, circumspice. 

In Polynesia the structural idea finds no place whatever; fantia means 
the land, from the mold at one's feet (Samoa, Aniwa, Maori, Tonga, Niue, 
Hawaii) to the land in which one lives (Samoa, Aniwa, Fottma, Futuna, 
Uvea, Tahiti, Sikayana, Moiki, Fakaafo, Vat6, Marquesas, Paumotu, Mana- 
hiki, Maori, Bukabuka, Rarotonga, Tonga, Viti, Rotuma, Niug, Hawaii), 
to the whole world of many lands (Aniwa, Maori, Mangareva, Tonga). 
And what has the Hebrew builder to do with even the least of these? 

In our Polynesian material the variations affect but the first syllable. 
Its radical vowel is a and it varies to e in eastern Polynesia and in the 
islands of the Western Verge ; to o in Tonga, Niue, and Hawaii, again a 
memorandum of the direct migration from Nuclear PoljTiesia to the north- 
em archipelago. The consonantal variations are all in the lingual series 
upward, from / to i; to /^ to wh to extinction. 

In our examination of the Melanesian material we shall observe the 
same three vowels; a is very common; e is found in Baki, Bpi, Santo, 
Malekula, Retan, Saa, Vanikoro; o is found in Nggela and the Banks 
Islands. Fagani gives us finiM, the only occurrence of i in all our material. 
The consonantal variation of the first syllable gives us / in Lamassa, 
Bierian, Malekula, Vanikoro, Efat^, Fagani. The common form is in^v, 
fotmd in Arag, Vanua Lava, Marina, Maewo, Sesake, Malo, Mota, Kabadi, 
Omba, Lakon, Baki, Ugi, Epi, Santo, Retan, Norbarbar, Pak, Sasar, Vuras, 
Leon, Motlav. The h form is in Ugi, Laur, Lambell, Motu, Saa. The w 
form is fotmd only in the Duke of York group. Nggela gives us a down- 
ward stronger variant in mbona. 

Pol3mesia admits its variability only in the first syllable, so in general 
does Melanesia. But there are instances where other parts of the word 
are affected. Final a becomes e in Omba, Saa, and vanishes in Lakon and 
Lamassa. In Baki final a becomes o in venuo; Norbarbar vonio establishes 
an alteration of u in the penult, which proceeds to extinction in vono of Pak, 
Sasar, Vuras, Leon, Motlav, and indicates the same loss in Nggela mbona. 

The Indonesian identifications modify only the first syllable, the vowels 
are a, e, o, the consonants b, v, w. 

In conclusion we are to note upon what slight ground rests the statement 
that the primary signification is house. This meaning is found only in 



DATA AND NOT^S. 343 

Malo, Santo, and the Togean Islands. Kjiowing this to be a loan word we 
are better warranted in regarding it as a misunderstanding or an inten- 
tional misapplication on the part of the borrowers, three among fifty- 
odd. I do not regard the use of fanua for town or village to arise 
from the rare house sense. The village sense is found in Sesake, Mota, 
Kabadi, Laur, Lambell, Motu, Santo, Saa, Fagani, Bicol, and the Visayas. 
Rather does it seem to me to record the fact that our connotation of land 
is wider by far than is within the scope of these poor islanders. When 
one lives at the edge of the jungle and has to wage a steady fight against 
the voracity of the advancing timber the dread forest is not a land or a 
country, it is the dripping abode of the gods ever vengeful. Land is only 
the place of human habitation, hence a village or a town, the designation 
varying as foreign observers may choose to record their impression on a 
volumetric scale which is always loose. 

293- 
fata, uenr', uere, uete, kofeta, a bench, shelf, stand, platform. 

Samoa : fata, a raised house in which to store yams, a shelf, a hand- 
barrow, a bier, a litter, an altar, to carry on a litter ; fatdmanu, 
a scaffold. Tongan: fata, a loft, a bier, a handbarrow, to 
carry on a bier; fataki, a platform. Futuna: fata, a barrow, 
a loft; fatataki, two sticks or canes attached to each other at 
each side of a house post to serve as a shelf. Nine : fata, a 
cage, a handbarrow, a shelf, a stage, (sometimes) the upper 
story of a house. Uvea : fata, a barrow, a bier. Fotuna : fata, 
a stage. Tahiti: fata, an altar, a scaffold, a piece of wood 
put up to hang baskets of food on ; afata, a chest, a box, a coop, 
a raft, a scaffold; pafata, a cage, a box; ahata, a box; ihata, a 
box, a cage, a scaffold. Paumotu: fata, a heap; afata, a box, 
a chest. Maori: whata, a platform or raised storehouse for 
food, an altar, to elevate, to support. Moriori : whata, a raft. 
Marquesas: fata, hata, hatad, shelves. Rapanui: hata, a table. 
Hawaii : haka, a ladder, an artificial henroost ; alahaka, a ladder. 
Mangaia: ata, a shelf; atamoa, a ladder; atarau, an altar. 
Mangareva : avata, a coffer, a box. 

Viti : vata, a loft, a shelf ; tdvata, a bier. 

Aneit5Tim : ne-fata, a press, a shelf ; noforofata, a ladder, scaffolding. 
Motu : vatavata, a ladder. Tanna : nafatafata, a stage. Bierian : 
kovata, id. Malo: ivasa, id. 

Malagasy ; vata, vatra, a box, a trunk, a coffer. 

Hebrew: 'omed, a platform, a place; 'emdah, a lodging-place. 

The Samoan fata is a pair of Ught timbers pointed at the ends and tied 
across the center posts of the house, one in front, the other behind the line 
of posts ; rolls of mats and bales of sennit may be laid across these timbers ; 
baskets of reserved victuals may be hung on the ends. The litter and the 
barrow are two light poles with small slats lashed across at intervals. The 
Marquesan fata is a stout stem of a sapling with the stumps of several 
branches, a hat tree in shape, though found among a barehead folk. These 
illustrations are sufficient to show what is the common element in all these 



344 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

jata identifications, light cross-pieces spaced at intervals. With this for a 
primal signification it is easy to see how a ladder, a raft, a henroost, an altar 
come under the same stem for designation. Perhaps Samoan fatafata 
the breast obtains the name by reason of the ribs ; it would be convincing 
were it not that the plumpness of most Samoans leaves the ribs a matter 
of anatomical inference. 

In our three island areas the fata stem is unmistakable. Malo ivasa 
probably belongs with fata, for tapu (207) forbid Malo sab exhibits the t-s 
mutation in this speech and it is found in other Melanesian tongues. This 
form ivasa finds its parallel in Tahiti ihata. Bierian kovata and Efate 
kofeta are the same /ato-composite. Efate uete may be a derivative from 
fata, for f-w has a wide range and a-e mutation is so frequent as to call for 
no comment except that in all our homogenetics we have found both the 
a's permanent. Uete may produce ^lere (on the t-r mutation see note 258). 
Having once accepted uere we can accept uenr', strange as nr seems. 

But the Semitic md can have no relation with a stem in ft. 

294. 

fatu, a stone. 

Samoa : fatu, a stone, the stone of fruits, seed, heart, gizzard. Tonga : 
fatu, gizzard; fatukala, a black pebble-stone; matafatu, hard, 
not easily made to cry (stone-face) . Tahiti : faturei, fatuumuti, 
stones in special uses. Fakaafo, Nine, Futuna, Aniwa, Sika- 
yana, Vate, Manahiki: fatu, a stone. Maori: whatu, a stone, 
the stone of fruits, the pupil of the eye, a testicle. Nuguria, 
Nukuoro: hatu, stone. Hawaii: haku, a hard lump of any- 
thing, the eyeball, adze-stones; pohaku, rock. Mangaia: atu, 
kernel of fruit; koatu, a stone. Mangareva: atu, a round fruit 
stone, any round form ; atumata, pupil of the eye ; atutaha, a 
stone used in turtle fishing. Fotuna : tafatu, stone. 

Viti: vatu, a stone, a rock. Rotuma: hof, -hoth, hathu, id. 

Nggela, Vaturanga, vSesake, Bierian, Mota, Arag: vatu, a stone. 
Bierian: votu, id. Bromanga: ni-vat, id. Mota: vat, id. 
Nguna: /afa, id. Fagani: /a'w, id. Lamassa: /oi, id. Volow: 
veat,id. AloTeqel: ve'e,i6.. Nifilole: ve,\6.. lai: veto, id.. 
Aneityum : na-fetumanava, na-fotumanava, the heart (cf . Samoa : 
fatumanava, id.). Duke oiYork: 'wat,wdtivdt, id. Raluana: 
wat, id. King: wat, id. Baravon: vuatwat, id. Solomon 
Islands: patu, id. Moanus: pat, id. Aneityum: ne-pat, a 
whinstone. Brierly Island: pak, stone. Kalil: 'hat, id. 
Laur: 'hat, id. Pala, Lambell : hat, id. Aneityum : w-feai, id. 
Saa: hau, id. Ulawa: hoihau, id. Malekula: var, ni-vit, id. 
Kahadi: vakuna, id. 'Kiriwina: daku, gaku, id. Tagula: 'z;ayM, 
id. Mekeo : fau, id. Hula, Keapara : vau, id. Galoma : bau, id. 
Tubetube: veku, id. Sariba: weku, id. Mugula, Suau: vcu, id. 

Malay, Kayan, Silong, Macassar, Togean Islands: batu, a stone. 
Magindano: watu, id. Savu: wawatu, id. Ilocan, Sulu: 
bato, id. Malagasy: vato, id. Satawal: fahou, id. 

Hebrew: eben, stone. Ethiopic: ebdn, id. 



DATA AND NOTES. 345 

In the Polynesian identification of fatu the variants all follow well-com- 
prehended laws until we reach Rotuma hof, hoth, hathu. In the preceding 
Polynesian we have seen the f-h mutation; in the succeeding Melanesian 
we shall see yet more of it. The mutation t-th in hathu and hoth is found 
in the passage from Proto-Samoan to Viti, and yet other instances are found 
in Aneityum and Bugotu. The still further mutation t-f, fotmd nowhere 
else in our present material, is common in Rotuma, as in these instances, 
talinga (350) ear Rotuma faliang, fetu star Rotuma hefu. 
I" : We shall examine our Melanesian material first in reference to the initial 
consonant. 

fatu. Nguna, with elision of t in Fagani fa'u, abraded fat in Lamassa. 
Fetu and fotu are found as composition members, the latter with 
Bierian votu and Rotuma hoth and hof being the only occurrence 
of that stem vowel. 
vatu. Nggela, Vaturanga, Sesake, Bierian, Mota, Arag. Bierian votu, 
an alternative form, has just received comment. Abraded vat is 
found in Eromanga and Mota. The value of the evidence for the 
t-r mutation appears in note 258; if this be considered valid 
Malekula var belongs in this group. With vowel change we find 
in series lai veto, Volow veat, Alo Teqel ve'e, Nifilole ve. With 
change to yet another vowel we have abraded Malekula vit. 
hatu. 'R.otuma. hathu. With elision of i, Saa and Ulawa /laM. Abraded 

hat in Aneityum, Kalil, Laur, Lambell. 
watu. Abraded wa/, Duke of York, Raluana, King ; duplicated wa<it;of, 
Duke of York, Baravon. 
These have been ascending variations. Descent in the series is found in : 
patu. Solomon Islands (?). Abraded pat, Moanus, Aneityum and 
probably Brierly Island pak. 
The Indonesian identifications, though few, are satisfactory. 
It is impossible to find any resemblance, to say nothing of more intimate 
relation, in the Semitic proposed in identification. 

► 3 2QS 

fill, fila, bila, bile, file, lightning. 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Futuna, Sikayana, Nuguria, Rarotonga: uila, 
lightning. Tonga, Nine : M/ij7a, id. Uvea : wM/a, lightning ; 
hila, to lighten. Hawaii: uila, uwila, wila, lightning. Tahiti, 
Mangaia, Nukuoro, Rapanui, Manahiki: uira, id. Maori: 
utra, lightning, to gleam, to flash. Moriori: rauira, lightning. 
Marquesas: uia, id. 
Viti: liva, lightning. 
Mota: vila, lightning. Omba: vile, id. Pala: hile, id. Laur: 

hille, id. Malo: uila, id. 
Kisa: uila, lightning. Pani: kuilat, id. Tagalog: kuirlat, id. 

Java: chalirit, id. Tidore: kila, id. 

Arabic : barak, bara', to gleam, to flash, to lighten ; bark', the lightning. 

Macdonald derives his lightning words from bilafila (284) to shine. If 

these words be kin to PoljTiesian uila this derivation can not stand, for the 

Proto-Samoan stem of bilafila has been shown to be pulaf, and of uila we 

have probably a stem uhila. 



346 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

It is advisedly that I use the adverb probably. The true aspirate is so 
gentle a breathing that we have no very sufficient evidence for its existence 
in Proto-Samoan. From a careful examination of all the available material 
I have been led to the conclusion that Proto-Samoan possessed two aspi- 
rations, one so weak that it has failed of influence upon Samoan in its 
modem phase, but is retained in such other tongues of Nuclear Polynesia as 
employ the aspirate; the other, probably of a stouter intonation, which 
has passed into the sibilant in modern Samoan and remains an aspiration 
in Nuclear Polynesia. 

The uila of Samoa {uhila in Tonga, Nine, Uvea) involves the former or 
weak aspiration. The verb hila in Uvea goes far to prove that the aspirate 
is structural and no mere grace note of speech. The presence in Hawaii of 
the form uwila is another finger-board to the direct migration from Samoa 
to that group, and the verb wila is confirmatory of Uvea hila. 

Viti liva is metathetic, closer to Melanesian consonantal forms than to 
the Polynesian initial vowel. 

In Melanesia Malo has the modem Samoan form. Laur hille, Pala hile 
are akin to the verb form in Uvea. Mota, Omba and Efat€ forms also 
derive from the verb. 

Indonesian forms are in accord with the later Tongafiti uila, except per- 
haps Tidore kila in kinship with the verb hila, and in their own cycle of 
development they have undergone accretion by prefixes and suffixes which 
correspond to nothing in Polynesia. 

Having segregated an effective stem hila, it needs but to put the Semitic 
by the side of it to show that kinship is out of the question. 

296. 
fonu, turtle, tortoise. 

Tonga : fonu, turtle, tortoise. Futuna, Niue, Uvea, Fotuna : fonu, 
turtle. Tahiti, Hawaii, Mangareva, Rapanui, Tongarewa: 
honu, id. Marquesas: honu, id. Samoa: volu, tortoise. 
Nukuoro: holu, turtle. 
Viti: vonu, turtle. 

Nggela: w«zt, turtle. Sesake : /owtt, id. New Ireland (Duffield) : 
kauk-foon, id. {kauk, fish). Kalil, Laur: 'hiin, id. Lamassa, 
Lambell: piin, id. King: puni, id. 
Malay: panu, turtle. Malagasy: fani, id. 
Arabic: 'dwinat, 'ayinat, turtle, tortoise. 
Two matters engage our attention at the outset of the examination of this 
material. Nukuoro and Samoa are the only languages which present the 
n-l mutation, a mutation of wide extent in Pol3mesia and of considerable 
frequency in the Melanesian area, as the table will exhibit. This is but one 
of many evidences which go to show that Samoa in its modern phase and 
Nukuoro form a binary system in the general sphere of Pol)Tiesian affinities. 
The other point is that while the variation in Melanesia is generally 
upward, we find the downward mutation in Lamassa, Lambell, and King, 
and the extreme of upward mutation in Kalil and Laur; yet these five 
languages are comprehended within 61 miles of New Ireland littoral. 
Thus we see that, considered by itself, the direction of mutation lacks 
diagnostic value. 



DATA AND NOTES. 347 

The Indonesian identifications are satisfactory. 

In the Arabic offering there is far too much, and of what does exhibit 
some resemblance, 'a-win-at, the alternative form sacrifices a half. Further, 
the change is not in series, which we have come to regard as essential in our 
speech family, but in w-y, a two-column leap from labial proximity to palatal 
proximity. No matter were the superficial resemblance even greater, we 
could not accept an identification which so far violates the instinct of 
Polynesian phonetics. 

297. 

ngil i, kil i, kili, to dig. 

Tonga: keli, to dig, to sink, a dyke, a trench, a ditch; fekeli, to 
paddle quickly. Nine, Uvea : keli, to dig. Samoa : 'eli, to 
dig, to pull hard in paddling. Hawaii: eli, to dig in the 
ground. Maori : keri, to dig, to rush along violently. Manga- 
reva, Nuguria, Rapanui, Paumotu: keri, to dig. Marquesas: 
kei, id. Nukuoro: keni, id. Tahiti: eri, to undermine; heri, 
to dig a hole, as a rat or a crab; ari, to scoop out the earth 
with both hands. 

Viti: keli, a ditch; kelia, to dig a hole. 

Santo: keli, to dig. Kiriwina: kelikeli, id. Sariba: keri, id. 
Malo : ce/e, id. Nggela: ge/t, id. Motu:^^, id. Solomon 
Islands: eli, id. Makura: nggili, id. New Britain: kir, 
kire, id. Baki, Bierian: TOfeifo", id. Mota: gil, id. Malekula: 
kiri, id. Keapara: gia, id. Misima: giar, id. Ambrym: 
gali, id. Kwagila: karo, id. Taupota: gar ai, id. Wedau, 
Galavi: g'arai, id. Awalama: haraia, id. Tayara: halaia, id. 
Dobu, Kiviri, Oiun: sara, id. 

Malay : gali, to dig. Malagasy : hadi, id. 

Arabic : kara', karw', to dig. 

In the PoljTiesian section Nukuoro keni {l-n mutation) is a common 
variation. 

In the broader aspect the variants in the three island areas are the usual 
changes of k and I. The former vowel is somewhat critical ; in Polynesia 
and Viti it is e throughout, in Indonesia (one sound identification, one 
debatable) it is a; in Melanesia the characteristic form is in i. Variants 
from the Melanesianfet7t stem are : in the Polynesian direction Nggela, Santo, 
Malo and the Solomon Islands (?); in the Indonesian direction Ambrj^^m, 
Efate, and several New Guinea languages. 

It would be better if we had transition forms to assist in the Malagasy 
identification, but its changes are in line with Polynesian phonetics and are 
no bar to acceptance of the form. 

The Semitic here is at least to be accepted as a resemblance, for in the klh 
triliteron the final consonant might readily pass from a Polynesian lan- 
guage, yet it must be said that it would more probably be retained as .y. 
There is no evidence to show that the Proto-Samoan stem was ever other 
than keli, that is the root kel with the suffix of the verb-formative i. Even 
when reduced to kel the Semitic resemblance is not abolished. 

Item 303 should be included with this. 



348 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

298. 
ngore, usu, ngusu, the nostrils, nose. 

Samoa : isu, nose, snout, bill. Futuna, Fakaafo, Aniwa, Manahiki : 
isu, the nose. Nuguria: kaisu, id. Fotuna: eisu, id. Moiki: 
ishu, id. Tonga, Nine, Uvea, Maori, Tahiti, Hawaii, Marquesas, 
Mangareva, Paumotu, Rapanui, Tongarewa, Nukuoro : ihu, id. 
Rarotonga: putaiu, id. Vate: tus, id. 
Viti: uthu, nose. Rotuma: isu, id. 

Vaturanga, Suau, Sariba, Tubetube: isu, the nose. Mugula: 
is'u, id. Roro: izu, id. Nggela, Bugotu: ihu, id. Sesake, 
Bpi: ngisu, id. Bierian: kinihu, id. Baki: sunu, id. Brumer 
Island: ishuda, id. Maewo: Usui, id. Wango: barisu, id. 
Roro, Kabadi: itu, id. Pokau: idu, id. Sinaugoro, Keapara: 
ilu, id. Hula, Galoma, Rubi: iru, id. Raqa, Oiun: iu, id. 
Awalama, Taupota, Mukawa: niu, id. Nggao: nehu, id. 
Buka: ivesu, uies, osu, id. Ulawa, Bululaha: palusu, id. 
Saa: pwalusu, id. Fagani: barusu, id. AmhryTn: guhu, id. 
Motu: udu, id. Aneityum: in-gidjin, id. 
Gani: usnut, the nose. Malay: idung, id. Java: irung, id. 

Togean Islands: ingu, id. Malagasy: uruna, id. 
Hebrew: nhlraim, the nostrils. Sy riac : nhlro', the nose. Arabic: 
noh'rat, the aperture of the nose. 
In the Efate the form ngore is not to be found in Polynesia nor is it con- 
spicuous in our Melanesian material. It may be that it reappears in Alite 
ngongora and Duke of York gigiro. 

The other words, usu and ngusu, serve as transition forms, usu pointing 
to isu the nose in Polynesia and ngusu to ngutu the mouth, which is very 
near, nearer yet when we bear in mind that ngutu the mouth is snout as 
well and that isu the nose is snout too. We shall examine our material 
first for the discrimination of the isu homogenetics. 

The Polynesian languages have isu firmly differentiated and this form 
goes over into Rotuma. In the foregoing list Vate tus rests on Turner's col- 
lation of two languages from Efate, Meli and Erakor, differing widely from 
the unnamed language which Macdonald records, and not distinguished by 
name in Turner's work. 

In Melanesia isu is found unmistakably in Vaturanga, Nggela, Bugotu, 
Brumer Island, and probably Buka (wesu, uies). In Indonesia it is possible 
that the Togean Island preserves it ; the Malay and Javanese are remote 
and beyond proof. 

Next we shall correlate the usu forms, restricting these to such as have 
u for the former vowel and are devoid of a consonantal modulant. This 
is found in Efate, Viti, Buka {osu)if and Motu udu. It is recalled by Gani 
usnut, and perhaps by Malagas3^ 

Efat^ identifies for us usu and ngusu. The latter is not common, Am- 
brym guhu is the only affiliated form. More common is the n^-modulant 
upon the isu stem: Sesake, Epi, ngisu; Bierian, ki-nihu; Nggao, nehu; 
Baki, sunu (metathetic). 

We now encounter another group of forms, the /-modulant upon the isu 
and the usu stem. Simply it is Usui in Maewo. Beyond this point it does 



DATA AND NOTES. 349 

not appear independently, but only in composition with another element, 
ba-pa-pwa: Wango, harisu; Fagani, barusu; Ulawa, Bululaha, palusu; Saa, 
pwalusu. The value of this prefatory member is at present unknown. As 
regards the lisu-lusu member of the composite we are by no means certain. 
We may choose to regard it as a mutant form of ngusu, but it should be 
noted that neither in Polynesia nor in Melanesia have we confirmatory 
evidence of ng-l mutation. 

We have already seen the interchangeability of isu and usu. The Mela- 
nesian material shows also the interchangeability of ngisu and ngusu, Hsu 
and lusu. As to the former of these pairs Efate shows that usu and ngusu 
are not only broadly interchangeable, but that they may exist as alternates 
in the same language. Now ngusu of Efat^ is clearly Polynesian ngutu. 
Accordingly we are now to pass the homogenetics of that stem under review, 
not stopping to distinguish in sense between mouth, snout, lips, beak, bill, 
all of which are found : 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna,Uvea, Nine, Fakaafo, Moiki, Maori, Rarotonga, 
Mangareva, Rapanui, Paumotu : ngutu. Hawaii : nuku. Tahiti : 
utu. Fotuna : rangutu. Marquesas : kiikutu, kiinutu. Aniwa : 
tangutu. Nuguria: launutu, launuhi. 

Viti: ngusu. Rotuma: nuchu. 

Mota.Ma\{go:ngusiu. MotaVeverau, Merlav: ngusui. Gog: ngus, 
ngusun. New Georgia : ngusu. Baki : sunu. Guadalcanar : 
ngisu. Pokau: nutu. Motu: udu. 

Saparua: nuku. 

In this latter collation it will be seen that the Polynesian is altogether of 
the ngutu type, the Melanesian of the ngusu type, except that Motu with 
the very same which reappears in Tahiti serves as the transition phase. 

We may lay out this material in a degenerative series, ngutu-ngusu-usu- 
isu. Yet it seems to me far more consonant with that we now know of the 
spirit of PoljTiesian to present them in the other as monuments of progress 
from a broadly diffuse primitive su root in the direction of higher speciali- 
zation in use by modulant coefiicients, u, i, ngu, ngi and li. In that view 
of the case we need recognize no difiiculty in the fact that Usu does not 
readily derive from ngisu, lusu from ngusu; they do not have to, they stand 
on their same plane of specialized evolution and they stand independent. 

And with this primal root su the Semitic presents not the slightest 
resemblance. 

299. 

ngum i, um i, ngu i, ngw i, mw i, to seize, to grasp, to catch, to hold (with 
or in the hand). 

Tonga : kuku, to clench the fist, to hold fast in the hand ; kukukuku, 
to hold and carry in the hand. Futuna: kukumi, kuku, to 
clasp in the hand. Nine: kuku, to hold fast, to grasp. Uvea: 
kumi, to grasp after ; kukumi, to throttle ; nima kuku, the fist. 
Mangareva : kukumu, to close the fist. Samoa : 'u'u, to take 
hold of, to grasp, to clutch. Fotuna: no-kumia, to grasp. 

Viti : kukuva, to hold a thing fast ; nggunggu, clinched ; nggumi, to 
clench ; nggunggutha, to hold in the hand. 



350 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Motu: guguba, to hold tightly, to squeeze with tight fingers. 
Malay: gangam, to clutch, to clench, the clenched hand, the fist. 

Java: gagam, id. 
Arabic: kamkama, to collect, to seize or catch with the hand, to 

take. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is kum. This is apparent in Ef ate ngum and um. 

It is purely a Nuclear Polynesian stem except for the extreme eastward 
extension to Mangareva. That it is identified only in Motu, Efatd, Viti, and 
Nuclear Polynesia shows it to have been brought by the migration stream 
through the south gate and along the Viti stream ; and its sole Malay identi- 
fications lie along the channel which that stream must have followed before 
leaving Indonesia. 

Our Viti forms are of particular interest. They reduce to stems kum, 
kuv, and kuh. Of these the first is the stem common to Nuclear Polynesia, 
Efate, and Indonesia ; the second accords with Motu, far back in the Torres 
Straits fairway ; the third nowhere else appears. The sense is so close for 
all three as to show their unity in essentials. This is exceptional, but it 
falls readily into accord with the hypothesis of seed as well as root in this 
primordial language family. 

In brief, this is that out of a seed of speech roots become such by the 
addition of consonantal modulants to differentiate specific particular mani- 
festations of the primordial act or state. I have worked out the value of a 
number of these consonants when prefixed as coefficients. Ex hypothesi 
we should look for a similar range of differentiations with consonants 
suffixed. 

In this instance we have ku as a root thus developed. Its primal sense 
is clearly something to do with the hand and its elemental activity. What 
then is the elemental activity of the human hand? Our ergographs might 
not register it at a milligramme, but the curling baby fingers are in the 
position of grasping, the instinct to clutch which Dr. Louis Robinson has 
said embodies whole ages of comprehension of the first need of arboreal 
life. In its primal sense ku is the expression of the primordial clutch of 
this race of primitive speech inventors. Such variety as succeeding conso- 
nants may affix to the primordial clutch may express the manner or the 
degree of such grasping. 

In our three Viti stems we find a certain order of degree ; just to hold in 
clutching hand, kuh; to clench the hand, kum; to clench and hold fast, kuv. 
In even degree h is one of the weakest of consonants, merely a breath ; m 
is so little removed from the vowels that it is among the very first of the 
consonant acquisitions ; v is one of the latest acquisitions, a strong sound 
for men who have long since learned to speak and to speak strong as 
becomes men. 

300. 
ika, a fish. 

Fakaafo, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Moiki, Nuguria, Sikayana, 
Vate, Maori, Marquesas, Mangareva, Mangaia, Paumotu, To- 
ngarewa, Rarotonga, Manahiki: ika, fish. Aniwa, Fotuna: 
eika, id. Samoa: i'a, id. Nukuoro, Tahiti, Hawaii: ia, id. 
Rapanui: ika, fish, animal. 



DATA AND NOTES. 351 

Viti: ika, fish. Rotuma: i'a, id. 

Epi: yika, fish. Sesake, Ambrym, Santo, Southeast Epi: ika, id. 
Bierian: ne-ika, id. Mota, Lo, Fagani, Belaga, Nggela: iga, id. 
Arag, Omba: ige, id. Wango, Bululaha: i'a, id. Ugi, Ulawa, 
Alite: ia, id. Roro: maio, id. Norbarbar: ie, id. Nengone: 
■wa ie, id. Saa, Tubetube: He, id. New Georgia: ihana, id. 
Dobu, Tavara, Awalama, Taupota, Wedau, Boniki, Mukawa, 
Kubiri: iana, id. Kabadi: veana, id. Duke of York: ian, id. 
Kiviri: wn,id. Kiriwina : iewa, id. Murua.: iini, id. Matupit: 
ien, id. Baravon: en, id. Buka: eina, aenna, aienne, aiena,id. 
Merlav, Pak: ig, id. Motlav, Gog, Mosin, Alo Teqel, Volow: 
eg, id. Malekula: na-ih, id. New Ireland (Duffield) : kauk, id. 

North Borneo: jikan, fish. Malay, Massaratty, Teor, Ilocan, 

Mayapo, Gah : ikan, id. Bouton : ikani, id. Amblaw : ikiani, id. 
Menado: maranigan, id. Silong: ackan, id. Sulu: isda, id. 
Kar Nicobar: ka, id. Central Nicobar: ga, id. Lariko, 
Wahai, Gani, Saparua, Ahtiago, Matabello: ian, id. Liang, 
Morella: iyan, id. Tidore: nyan, id. Batumerah, Awaiya, 
Caimarian: iani, id. Mysot: ein, id. Java: iwa, id. Teluti: 
yano, id. 

Hebrew : dag, dege, dagah, degath, fish. 

In the data here assembled we have two working stems, which, from the 
regions of their greatest frequency, are to be described as ika the Polynesian 
stem, and ikan the Indonesian stem. 

We find ika as the stem in all but five of the Polynesian languages; and 
the only change affects the consonant; in Samoa and Rotuma it has so 
lately vanished that enunciation still marks the gap ; in Nukuoro, Tahiti, 
and Hawaii it has been forgotten that a consonant ever intervened. 

This stem is of the most common occurrence in Melanesia. In various 
stages of dilapidation we may trace it from Nengone in the far south to 
the central Solomons and with possibly one sporadic instance farther north 
in the eastern gateway. Epi shows in yika the ika stem with a slight semi- 
vowel reinforcement, possibly repeated in North Borneo jikan, though the 
value of this j is not distinctly set forth. The normal ika is found in the 
New Hebrides, and with a variant not possible in Polynesia, as iga and 
ige in the New Hebrides and the central Solomons. The change of the 
final vowel from o to e is so slight as not to call for detailed consideration. 
Wango and Bululaha reproduce Samoa and Rotuma i'a. I a is foimd in a 
part of the Solomons, but not restrictively, for ie carries it along to Norbar- 
bar and Nengone. We are last to consider a variant which would be im- 
practicable in Polynesia, terminal abrasion to a closed stem, ig and eg in the 
Banks Group, ih in Malekula, perhaps in the New Ireland composite ka-uk. 

Modifications of the ikan stem are found in the northern part of Mela- 
nesia, the southernmost occurrence as well as the least altered being New 
Georgia ihana. The presence of the n serves to identify ikan for us, despite 
the dropped k, in Duke of York, Matupit, Buka and Baravon. These are all 
within the range of Post- Polynesian Malayan voyaging, recourse to which 
explanation has been had in folau (287). 



352 THK POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Regarding the suffixed n as characteristic of Indonesia and affixed upon 
Polynesian loan material in accordance with an idiosyncrasy foreign to the 
source of the loan, we may dispose of many of these forms by a list which 
exhibits their progress in variation from the standard type: jikan, ikan, 
ikani, ikiani, maran-igan, ackan, iani, yano, nyan, iyan, tan, ein. Sulu isda 
is impossible of coordination. Nicobar ka and ga would need proof that ika 
could sacrifice that former syllable which only in Silong ackan has admitted 
of any alteration whatever. Java iwa is last to be noted ; it should not be 
understood as involving a k-w mutation, but rather does it represent some- 
thing very much like Samoa i'a, and the semivowel w is but the attempt 
to hold the two vowels apart, as is accomplished in Samoa by the '. This 
is a particularly interesting identification, for it is the only language in 
Indonesia which has not added n to the Proto-Samoan stem. 

Concerning the Semitic Dr. Macdonald writes : "It is possible that ika is the 
same by the elision of the d." Equally is it possible that darksome is 
irksome "by the elision of the d." A simple philology. 

' '/'a is the general name for fishes," Pratt notes in his Samoan dictionary, 
"except the bonito and shellfish (mollusca and Crustacea)." We may for- 
give the inaccuracy of the biology in our gratitude for the former note. The 
bonito is not a fish, the bonito is a gentleman, and not for worlds would 
Samoa ofi"end against his state. The Samoan in his 'upu fa'aaloalo has his 
own Basakrama, the language of courtesy to be used to them of high degree, 
to chiefs and bonitos. 

One does not say that he goes to the towns which are favorably situated 
for the bonito fishery; he says rather that (funa'i) he goes into seclusion, 
he withdraws himself. He finds that the fleet which is to chase the bonito 
has an honorable name for this use, that the chief fisher has a name that 
he never uses ashore. He will not in so many words say that he is going 
to fish for bonito, he says that he is going out paddling in the courtesy 
language (alo) ; he even avoids all chance of offending this gentleman of his 
seas by saying, instead of the blunt vulgarity of the word fishing, rather that 
he is headed in some other direction {fa' asanga' ese) . He does not paddle 
with the common word but with that (pale) which he uses in compliment 
to his chief's canoe. He will not so much as speak the word which means 
canoe; he calls it by another word (tafanga), which may mean the turning 
away to one side. In this unmentioned canoe he may not carry water by 
its common name, he must call it (malu) the cool stuff. He will not men- 
tion his eyes in the canoe; he calls his visor (taulauifi) the shield for his 
chestnut leaves. Even the word for large becomes something else (sumalie) 
in this great game. The hook must be tied with ritual care ; it is called 
(pa) out of the common name for hook ; no bonito will take a hook which 
has not been properly tied ; the fastening is veiled under the name (fanua) 
for the land. There are many rules to observe; their disregard is called 
(sopoliu) the stepping over the bilges, from the most unfortunate thing that 
the fisher can do. He may hail the bonito by his name (atu), or he may 
call him affectionately or coaxingly (pa'umasunu) old singed-skin. If he 
has the fortune to hook his bonito he must raise the shout of triumph, 
Tu! Tu! Tu e!, not his whole name but one of its syllables ; he triumphs 
as over a foe honorably slain in combat, but he avoids hurting the feelings 



DATA AND NOTES. 353 

of the other gentlemen of the sea. The first bonito caught in a new canoe 
he calls (ola) life ; the first bonito caught in any season bears a special name 
(ngatongid), of uncertain signification, and he presents it to his chief. His 
catch he reckons by a special notation ; to his numerals he adds the word 
(lino) body; he counts them as one-body, two-body, three-body. Parts of 
the gentleman have specific names of their own; his fins (asa) and his 
entrails (fe'afe'a) are called in terms nowhere else employed ; the tidbit of 
the belly part, which the fisher must give to his chief, is called (ma'alo) by 
the honorific title of the chief's abdomen. And if the rites were not duly 
observed, if the hook was not rightly tied, if the fisher was so incautious 
as to mention his eyes, if one of a hundred faults was committed and the 
fishing was in vain, then the fisher acknowledged his ill success abjectly by 
saying that (malod) he was conquered. 

Such is the language Samoans use to the gentleman of the seas, and he 
is not i'a. 

301. 
kasu, kas, kau, tree, wood. 

Samoa: la'au, a tree, a plant, wood, timber; 'au'auli, 'auali'i, names 
of trees. Futuna: /ad^aw, a tree, plant, wood ; feattaw, sandal- 
wood. Niue: lakau, a shrub, a tree, wood; akau, a tree, wood, 
timber; kauhuhu, the name of a shrub. Fakaafo, Manahiki: 
lakau, a tree. Nuguria: lakau, rakau, id. Hawaii: laau, 
a tree, wood, timber. Maori : rakau, id ; kauere, kauka, kauri, 
names of trees. Rarotonga, Tongarewa, Fotuna, Mangareva : 
rakau, a tree. Paumotu : rakau, a tree, a plant. Sikayana : 
rakau, wood. Nukuoro: rakau, a tree; ururakau, medicine; 
haiururakau, a doctor. Rapanui: rakau, medicine. Vate: 
rakau, a tree, a club. Tahiti: raau, a tree, wood, timber. 
Aniwa: foirakou, a tree; rakao, a club. Tonga, Uvea, Mar- 

quesas: akau, a tree, wood, timber. Moiki: ngakau, tree. 
Viti: kau, kai, a tree, wood. Rotuma: oi, a tree. 
Nggao: gazu, a tree. Sesake, Epi: kau, id. Marina: gau, id. 
Nguna: nakau,i6.. Motu: dw, a tree, firewood. Aneityum: 
nelcau-un, a rafter; cai, a tree. Solomon Islands: au, a tree. 
Omba, Arag, Nggela, Bugotu : gai, id. Murray Island : gair, id. 
Maewo: ^ei^a, id. Tangoan Santo : tagai, id. Mota: tangae, id. 
Gog: regai, id. Lakon: rega, id. Lo: raga, id. Bierian: 
lakai, tree; leke, wood. Malo: wu-cai, tree. Tanna: ni-gi, id. 
Epi: lakai, yesi, id. Merlav: tankei, id. Volow, Motlav, 
Norbarbar: tenge, id. Vuras: retenge, id. Mosin: rekenge, id. 
Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel: enge, id. Malekula: ni-ge, n-ai, id. 
Ulawa, Bululaha, Alite: ai, id. Vaturanga, New Georgia: 
hai, id. Duke of York: diwai, id. 
Malay, Baju: ^ayw, tree, wood. Teor:feai, id. Malagasy: /lazM, id. 
Hebrew: 'es, tree, wood; from Hebrew, 'asah, Arabic, 'asa', to be 
hard, firm. 

The stem kau does not appear independently in any language of Poly- 
nesia proper. For tree and for timber we have the composite lakau in 
various stages of transformation. But kau will also be found as an initial 



354 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

component of various tree names. It is in Viti first that we find it in 
free existence. In Melanesia this form is rare. It occurs as kau in Efat6, 
Sesake, Epi, Nguna, and perhaps may be preserved in Aneityum ; as gau in 
Marina; as au in Motu and somewhere in the Solomon Islands. 

The triplicity of the Efate forms suggests a possible transition. Kasu 
and kas are easy to be correlated, kasu and kau less easy. They might be 
linked by the assumption of a parent form kahu, from which each might 
derive. This would appear in modern Samoan as kau; but I have found it 
the rule that even the mildest aspirate in Proto-Samoan becoming extinct 
in modern Samoan is yet retained as aspiration in Nuclear Polynesia and 
as th in Viti, none of which mutations is found on this record. 

With the statement of this contrary argument, let us adopt this as a 
working hypothesis . With kasu we identify Nggao gazu and Malagasy hazu. 
With a parent kahu we may associate Malay and Baju kayu. This is as 
far as this unsupported hypothesis will carry us, although kayu invites 
enticingly as a bridge to kau. 

We next employ the comparison of Polynesian lakau and Bierian lakai to 
give us a transformation phase by which we may cross from kau to kai, and 
in Viti we find kai occurring as a dialectic variant of kau. This secondary 
stem kai (as kai, cai, gai, gae) is discoverable in the free state or in com- 
position over a wide Melanesian range, and in Teor in Indonesia. In Vatu- 
ranga and New Georgia hai we find the transition to Malekula n-ai and to 
ai of Ulawa, Bululaha, and Alite, probably including Duke of York diwai 
as a composite. 

For the next deterioration phase we have the benefit of a similar transition 
member. As we were able to link lakau and lakai, so may we link lakai and 
Lo raga, Lakon rega, and Bierian leke. Thus we obtain a tertiary stem ka, 
ke. The ka (ga) form occurs only in Lakon and Lo. The ke (ge) form we 
list from Norbarbar, Vuras, Mosin, Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel, Malekula ; and 
the gi from Tanna. 

Let us not neglect to observe that in many of these Melanesian languages 
kau is able to stand free, as in Viti and Efate ; omitting the combined article 
n variously vocalized, we list free forms in Nggao, Sesake, Epi, Marina, 
Nguna, Motu, Aneityum, Solomon Islands, Omba, Arag, Nggela, Bugotu, 
Murray Island, Tanna, Malekula, Ulawa, Bululaha, Alite, Vaturanga, and 
New Georgia. 

In the Polynesian area we have noted that the prior composition element 
is la, variously modified to ra, nga, a. We find this recurring in Melanesia. 
First as la: Aneityum, ne-lcau-un. Then as e, corresponding to a in Tonga, 
etc. ; Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel, further establishing a variant stem nge out of 
the tertiary ge. We now pass from la to ta, a mutation ill supported ; it 
may be better to regard it as an independent member of the composite. 
As ta we note its occurrence in Tangoan Santo, Mota, Merlav ; as te, in 
Volow, Motlav, Norbarbar. It may even be di in Duke of York diwai. 
The form tenge illuminates Vuras retenge as a double composite, the com- 
mon la stem prosthetic upon the te-nge compound ; and upon retenge hangs 
Mosin rekenge. The prior element in Malo wu-cai is not elsewhere found. 
Maewo geiga eludes analysis, except upon the scheme that it is a duplicate 
of slightly variant kai derivatives. 



DATA AND NOTES. 355 

This is all very intricate, but the proof needs just this link by link elabo- 
ration. The only point as to which we may retain proper doubt is as to 
the kasu group of forms ; they are certainly an anomaly. Yet it is just 
upon the kasu group, this irreconcilable kasu, that the whole of the pro- 
posed Semitic origin rests. 

302. 
kat i, katikati, ngat i, to bite; kakat, a bite; fikit, to bite each other. 

Futuna : katikati, to gnaw off the bark of sugar cane with the teeth ; 
kakati, to corrode, to pierce, to eat in. Niue: kakati, to bite, 
to chew. Maori: kakati, to eat into, to gnaw through, to 
corrode; katikati, to nibble. Rarotonga: kati, kakati, to bite. 
Paumotu: kakati, id. Nukuoro: kati, id. Rapanui: katikati, 
to scratch. Samoa: 'ati, to eat in, to corrode; 'a'ati, to eat 
in, to corrode, to gnaw off, to pierce (as the teeth of a dog) ; 
'atimotu, to bite through. Tahiti: ati, to bite; aati, to bite, 
to gnaw, to tear with the teeth. Hawaii: aki, aaki, akiaki, 
to bite, to nibble. 
Viti : katia, to bite. 

Malo: cate, to bite. Tangoan Santo: kati, id. Makura: nggati, id. 
Bierian: mkati, id. Santo: kotkot, id. Malekula: haji, id. 
Mota: ngit, id.; gat, to chew. Tagula: gadu, to hite. Nada: 
gad, id. Kiriwina: gadi, id. Tubetube: letai, id. Suau: 
retai, id. Murua: gedi, id. Kubiri: gitahoni, id. Dobu: 
go'i,\d. 'Romki: kutai, id. MukayvSi: kutakihai,id. Taupota, 
Wedau: utai, id. 
Malay : gigit, to bite ; gigitan, a bite. Malagasy : hehitra, to hold, 
to grasp, to seize, clutch, bite; kaikitra, a bite; manaikitra, 
to bite. 
Syriac: nkat, to bite. 

At the time of the earliest, the Proto-Samoan, migration the effective 
stem was kati, this, however, being formed upon the root kat by the verb- 
formative i. The bare root must have been carried down into Melanesia by 
the Proto-Samoans, for it is found preserved in Santo and Mota. Fur- 
thermore, in these two languages reproducing the archaic form we find the 
only deviations from the radical a. One of these, represented by the Mota 
ngit, is the vowel of the Malay identifications. 

The Syriac stands as a resemblance, form and sense. 

303- 
kil i, kili, to dig; kali, a digging stick; kill, a current (as in the sand; lit. 
that which digs). Cf. ngil i (297) to which this note is 

supplemental. 
Ethiopic : feamya, to dig. Arabic: feara', id. Hebrew: fearafe, id. 
Chaldee: kera', id. 

304- 
kirikiri, gravel, pebbles. 

Tonga: kilikili, small stones placed on graves. Futuna, Niue: 

kilikili, gravel. Samoa : 'ili'ili, gravel, pebbles, small stones ; 

'iliti, to be pained by walking over sharp stones ; ta'ili, stony, 



356 THE POI.YNES1AN WANDERINGS. 

gravelly. Maori : kirikiri, gravel. Mangaia : kirikiri, flints, 
small stones. Moriori: kiripohatu, gravel. Rapanui: kirikiri, 
polished stone. Mangareva: kirikiri, flints, small stones. 
Paumotu: kirikiri, stony, pebbly, gravelly; huakiri, gravel, 
stony. Sikayana: kirikiri, shingle. Tahiti: iriiri, gravel. 
Hawaii : Hi, iliili, small stones worn smooth by water. Nukuoro : 
kerikeri, pebbles. Marquesas: kiikii, gravel. 
Viti : kilitha, to turn up stones, to turn a thing up and look under it. 
Solomon Islands: kilifela, flint; pokiri, a fishing sinker. Motu: 

miri, gravel. 
Malay: krikil, karikil, karikil, gravel, pebbles; batu-kelikir, gravel. 
Arabic: girgir', a berry; garal' , gravel. Hebrew: garger, a berry. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is kllit. 

To the significations assigned in the Polynesian section should be added 
that of fragments of broken coral such as are used for flooring houses where 
shingle of volcanic rock is not available. I am very doubtful of the miner- 
alogy which assigns flint to Mangaia, Mangareva and the Solomon Islands. 
The Viti langgere gravel may perhaps be a composite of this stem. While 
kilitha very clearly reproduces the kilit stem its signification is far from 
satisfactory. 

So far as we are in a position to judge Motu miri amounts to no more 
than a partial resemblance, for in all this material we have no evidence 
confirmatory of a k-m mutation, and Motu in four instances disposes of k 
thus: twice by extinction (301, 306), once preserves it (249), once alters it 
to g (299). 

The Malay forms are coordinate with the modern abraded form of the 
stem. 

The Semitic has a general resemblance, but it has the stem grh, of which 
the last member throws it out of accord with the Polynesian skeleton kit. 

305- 
kuli na, uili na, the skin, the bark. 

Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea : kili, the skin, bark, husk. Nukuoro : 
kilif &m, the skin. Fotuna, Maori, Mangaia, Mangareva: kiri, 
skin. Paumotu : kiri, the bark. Rapanui : kiri, iri, the skin. 
Marquesas : kii, skin, hide, leather. Samoa : 'iliola, the outer 
skin; 'iliasina, light-colored, as the skin; fa'a'ililua, to injure 
down to the second skin by scratching. Tahiti: iri, skin, 
hide, bark. Hawaii : Hi, the skin, the bark. 

Viti: kuli, skin. Rotuma: uli, id. 

Ambrym: Hi, skin, bark. Sesake: weli, id. Moanus: kulit, id. 
1,0 : gilit, id. 'Epi: kulu, id. Murray Island: egwr, id. Nggao: 
guli, id. Bugotu, Nggela: guiguili, id. New Georgia: 

korekore, id. Savo: korakora, id. Vaturanga: kokora, id. 
Wango: uriuri, id. Malo: uri, id. Baki: kulukuti, id. 
Bierian : kul, id. Eromanga : no-kohitan, id. Santo : kurina, id. 

Malay: kulit, skin, hide, leather, bark, rind, husk, shell. Baju: 
fett/if, skin, bark. M.a.tn:kulit,id. Ahtia.go:ikulit,id. Bouton: 
okulit, id. Teor : holit, id. Madura : koli, id. Savu : kori, bark. 

Arabic: gilid, skin, bark. 



DATA AND NOTES. 357 

The PoljTiesian word varies but slightly, and that normally, from kili. 
As it is in use solely with the value of a noun and hence needs no formative 
affixes which might protect a radical terminal consonant as in verb-deriva- 
tives, we have no means of proving a kilit stem. Indonesia exhibits a stem 
which differs in the former vowel and preserves a final consonant, kulit. 
Melanesia sometimes approaches the Polynesian, other times the Indonesian. 

Of the Polynesian type we note Ambrym and Sesake, both of which have 
abraded the initial k, and in neither is it usual to drop that letter. Lo pre- 
serves the vowel in gilit and at the same time has the Indonesian f-final. 
Codrington (Melanesian Languages 90, note) suggests as a possibility that 
Mota wil to peel is homogenetic ; in his Mota dictionary, however, he defines 
with great precision "to turn round horizontally, to peel, turning the fruit 
over in peeling," this in sense and in form bringing the word into close 
association with vili to turn round ; the k-w mutation in Mota is suggested 
but once, kutu (306) a louse Mota wut. 

The two forms in Efat^ are not wholly satisfactory as transition phases, 
for they would involve the unsupported k-w mutation. Still we do find 
kuli, a frequent Melanesian and altogether Indonesian form, alternative 
with uili, which seems to offer some possibility of a connection with the 
Polynesian kili. 

The kuli form without consonant termination is found in Viti, Rotuma, 
Epi (Bierian and possibly Baki), Murray Island, Nggao, Bugotu, Nggela, 
New Georgia, Savo, Vaturanga, Wango, Malo, and Santo. There is a con- 
siderable variation in these forms, but they are to be connected with this 
stem. In Baki kulukuti we may have a composite of which kulu alone 
pertains to this group. In Moanus we have a distinctly Indonesian form; 
geographically it is within the feasible limit of Post-Polynesian Malayan 
intercourse ; yet Lo, almost too far south for this explanation to be consid- 
ered valid, has the ^final in gilit; and Eromanga no-kohit-an is suggestive, 
although we have no other instance in that language of l-h mutation. 

All the Indonesian identifications are of the kulit type, except that 
Madura and Savu have either lost or have not acquired the ^final. 

The Arabic shows resemblance to the Indonesian type as to consonants, 
to the Polynesian as to vowels. 

306. 
kutu, the louse. 

Tonga, Futuna, Uvea, Fotuna, Marquesas, Mangareva, Rarotonga, 
Rapanui, Nukuoro: kutu, the louse. Niue: kutu, the louse, 
the flea. Maori: kutu, the louse, human vermin in general. 
Samoa: 'm^w, the louse ; 'utufiti, the Aea. Paumotu: gutu, the 
louse. Tahiti: utu, id. Hawaii: uku, a small insect. 

Viti : kutu, the louse. 

Deni, Nada, Kiriwina, Mukawa, Raqa: kutu, the louse. Murua: 
kuti, id. Arag, Nggela, Bugotu, Sinaugoro: gutu, id. Kiviri, 
Oiun: guta, id. Vaturanga: ngotu, id. Marina, Lo, Malekula 
Pangkumu: gut, id. Hula, Keapara: gu, id. Aneityum: 
get, id. Tanna.: kiget, id. Motlav, Volow: 9*/, id. Makura: 
na-kit, id. Nengone: ote, id. Buka: autu, id. Motu, 
New Britain, Malo, Rubi, Dobu, Awalama, Taupota, Wedau, 



358 THS POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Kubiri: utu, id. Pokau, Doura: uku, id. 'Roro : uhu, id. 
Bululaha: m'm, id. Galoma : t*M, id. Alite, Mekeo, Galoma : 
u, id. Omba, Maewo, Mota: ivutu, id. Merlav, Mota, Gog, 
Lakon, Vuras, Mosin, Norbarbar: wut, id. Pak, Sasar, Alo 
Teqel: wu, id. 

Malay, Java, Salayer, Menado, Bolanghitam, Sanguir, Gani, Lariko, 
Gah, Baju: kutu, the louse. Bouton: okutu, id. Sula: 
kota, id. Mayapo, Massaratty : feofo, id. Macassar: fettfo, id. 
Ahtiago Alfuros: kutim, id. Teor: hut, id. Morella, Mata- 
bello: utu, id. Caimarian: utua, id. Wahai: utun, id. 
Mysot: ut, uti, id. 

Arabic : kurdu', the louse. 

Pediculus seems from the uniformity of the occurrence of this stem to 
have been an ancestral possession of the Pacific races in their voyaging. 
That other source of uneasiness, the flea, would appear a later acquisition, 
since it is rather commonly described in kutu composites as the jumping 
louse. In Efate the flea was imknown, the people say, until it was intro- 
duced by white visitors. 

While the Melanesian forms show a wide range of variation, they may 
readily be set forth in two series, according as they keep or lose ^-initial. 

1. kutu, gutu, ngotu; gut, get, git, kit. 

2. utu, ote, uku, uku, u'u, u. 

There remains a group of three forms characteristic of the northern 
New Hebrides. This seems to involve, in its several forms wutu, wut, wu, 
the k-w mutation which nowhere else appears nor is it exhibited in any 
other Polynesian loan word in these languages except in the very doubtful 
kusue (251) rat I^akon wohow. I incline to look upon this w as not at all 
a fe-mutant, but rather as an accretion after the k has been dropped, a 
hint that something has vanished. I have suggested the same in ika (300) 
to account for the Javanese form. 

In Indonesia we find the same double series, with and without the k. 

The Arabic krd* contains two elements foreign to the Polynesian, of 
which the protected r could not have been dropped arbitrarily. 

307- 
laba, to be much, many; laba, leba, lafulafu, to be or become or grow big; 
leb, indeed, very; barab, baraf, barau, long, cf. barab, 121. 

Samoa : lava, to be enough, to complete, the whole, indeed, very. 
Nukuoro: /a7;a, enough. Nuguria: /Mt/ai;a, id. Rarotonga: 
rava, much. Rapanui: rava, to be able, capable; hakarava, 
to make large. Maori: rawa, numerous, many, quite, very, 
at all. Hawaii: lawa, enough, a sufficiency. Niue: leva 
(in leva), very, quite. 

Viti: levu, great; ndrawa, a thing that fills up. 

Mota: lava, greatly; liwoa, large. Sesake: lavulavu, very large. 
Merlav, Gog: Za2', large. Lo: lilav,\a.rgQ.. Oraha:lawua,\d. 
Arag: gaivua, id. Fagani: rafa, id. Wango: raha, id. 
Saa: laha, id. Deni: lebu, id. Mosin, Motlav: liwo, id. 



DATA AND NOTES. 359 

Lo: liliwo, id. Leon, Sasar, Pak, Volow: lowo, id. Vuras, 
Lo, AloTeqel: luwo,i6.. Norbarbar: luwoa, id. Aneityum: 
■- lupas, id. Pala: nabd, very; laba, great. 

Malagasy: lava, long, tall, continuing long. Malay: luwas, wide, 

extensive, large, ample. 
Hebrew: rabab, to become much or many; rabah, to be or become 
great, to grow up. 
There seem to be involved two stems here, one characterized by a-forms, 
the other by some weaker vowel. Yet the consonant structxire exhibits a 
degree of connection between the two. 

The a-form is the rule in Polynesia, with the exception of Nine. It 
occurs in Efate. It appears in Mota and Viti together with the weaker 
form, but especially dififerentia ted therefrom. It is found in Sesake, Merlav, 
Gog, Lo, Omba, Arag (?), Fagani, Wango, Saa, Bululaha, Pala. 

Of the weaker type we find e-forms in Nine, Viti, Efat^ and Deni. An 
»-form occurs in Mosin, Motlav, Mota, Lo ; and lilav in the last-named may 
serve as a transition phase between weak and strong types. An o-form is 
foimd in Leon, Sasar, Pak and Volow. Forms in u come to light in Vuras, 
Lo, Alo Teqel, Norbarbar and Aneityum. 

In Indonesia we are able to identify one instance of the strong and one 
of the weak form. 

The Semitic has at least a resemblance. 

308. 
langi, the sky, heaven, above. 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Manahiki: langi, the 
sky. Nukuoro: langi, id.; para-o-te-langi, rain; rang, a day; 
htiarangi, noon. Rapanui : rangi, sky, heaven, blue. Maori, 
Rarotonga, Mangareva, Aniwa, Fotuna, Paumotu, Tongarewa : 
rangi, the sky. Nuguria, Hawaii: lani, id. Tahiti: rai, id. 
Marquesas: aki, ani, id. Vat^: rang, id. 
Viti: langi, the sky. Rotuma: langi, id. 

Modnus: lang, the sky; rang, day (the lighted hours). Buka: 
indengid, the sky. Tanna: neai, id. Malo: tukaelange, id. 
Baki : lani, day. Bierian : ligian, day. Tanna : lenyan, day. 
Malo : rane, light, day. Pokau : lani, daybreak, light. Kabadi : 
rani, id. Roro: rani-ne-rere, daybreak. Roro: lani, wind, 
time. Waima: /am, wind. Wedau: l' and' anene, id. Galoma: 
lagi, id. Dobu, Kiriwina: iagila, id. Wedau: I'agi'na, id. 
Galoma: gagi, id. Murua: yagi, id. Hula, Keapara: agi, id. 
Misima: /an, daybreak. Panaieti: ran, id. Motu, Nada: lai, 
wind. Nada: laina, id. 
Malay, Kayan, Java, Tagalog, Magindano, Sulu: langit, sky. 
Baliyon: langid, id. Bugi, Champa, Macassar: langi, id. 

Togean Islands: janggie, id. Malagasy: lanitra, id. 
Hebrew: rum, ram, to be high, to raise, to lift up. Ethiopic: 
aryam, heaven. 
In this very smooth series of identifications only a few merit comment. 
The general signification is the sky, in some obscure fashion conceived 
of as disposed in concentric layers ; for in Samoan legend Tangaloa, self- 



360 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS- 

existent and heedless creator of all things, rests in the eighth heaven or 
the ninth. In Nukuoro, where the Samoan influence is altogether para- 
mount, and in Moanus, the first identifiable halting-place of the migra- 
tion swarm through the eastern gateway, we find the word used for the 
bright half of the day; this usage occurs in Baki and Bierian of Epi, in 
Malo, and probably in Tanna. In Moanus we have positive record (po 285), 
and in Nukuoro we are warranted in assuming the common Polynesian 
practice, that the calendar days are counted by the lapse of darkness. We 
note with surprise that in these two languages the day sense is differentiated 
from the sky sense by the use of r for the former and / for the latter. We 
are not justified in drawing a conclusion that on this account is there any 
particular association between these two languages. Moanus marks the 
exit from Indonesia, Nukuoro can only be understood as a very modern 
counter current from Samoa; the same differentiation holds in Malo. We 
have already had occasion {matangi 274) to discuss yet another langi sense, 
that of the wind. In San Cristoval rangi is the rain. 

Buka indengid seems resolvable into in-dengi-d, the former element 
functioning as article. We have no other example from Buka of the l-nd 
mutation, but in the table it will be seen that l-nd, or its practical equiv- 
alent l-t,\s notunknown. The d-final points to the possibility of acquisition 
from Malay influence, and Buka is within the range of such cruises. Malo 
tukae-lange is clearly a composite, and the former member is not explic- 
able from our scanty memorials of that speech ; but the latter element is 
confirmed in yet another composite, tae-lage cloud. Tanna neai may not 
improbably be ne-{l)a{ng)i. 

The Indonesian identifications are satisfactory, noting only that the 
Minal as a formative element is generally idiosyncratic of this language 
group. 

The only way in which the Semitic can be brought into association with 
langi sky lies in the Efate preposition (?) elangi above. If that becomes 
"above" by reason of a development of a secondary sense out of the literal 
"in the sky," then it has nothing to with this Semitic. If, on the other 
hand, its primal sense is "above" (possibly akin to Polynesian lunga), then 
it has nothing to do with langi the sky. In either way the Semitic is 
irrelevant even before we consider the amount of its resemblance. 

309- 
lango, a fly. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea: lango, the common house-fly. 
Nuguria : lano, id. Fotuna, Maori, Rarotonga, Paumotu : rango, 
id. Nukuoro: nango, id. Tahiti: rao, id. Hawaii: nalo, id. 

Viti: lango, a fly. Rotuma: lang, id. 

Arag, Omba, Bululaha, Alite, Marina, Maewo, Gog, Mota, Malo, 
Ulawa, Wango, Saa, Vaturanga, Nggela : lango, a fly. Fagani : 
rango, id. Bugotu : //mn^o, id . 'Nggao: glango, id. Nengone: 
nengo, id. Bierian: alago, id. Motu: lao, id. Guadalcanar: 
ango, id. Baki: jago, id. Sasar, Vuras, Mosin, Alo Teqel, 
Laur, Lambell, King, Lamassa, Duke of York, Merlav, Lakon, 
Pak, Volow, Norbarbar : lang, id. Motlav, Lo : leng, id. New 
Britain: /ag-a, id. Makura: «a-/a^, id. Malekula: we-ra^, id. 



DATA AND NOTBS. 361 

Aneityum: inlag, id. Murray Island: narger, id. Solomon 

Islands: lau-au, id. Pokau: lalo-maka, id. Motu:/ao, id. 

Doura: lao-maka, id. Meheo: angu-ma, id. R-oro : au-maha,id. 

Kabadi: ao-kama, id. Panaieti: nagunagu, id. Nada: 

nigunagu, id . Murua : nigau-wari, id . Kiriwina : nigonagula, id . 

Dobu: nene-wara, id. 
Kayan, Sanguir: lango, a fly. Pampangas: langb, id. Menado, 

Bolanghitam: raingo, id. Baju: langow, id. North Borneo: 

lalangou, id. Tagalog: langau, id. Dyak: lengeau, id. 

Malay: langau, a large fly, a bluebottle. 
Arabic : lakka'u, a fly. 
With the exception of the l-n mutation in Nukuoro and the plain meta- 
thesis in Hawaii we encounter nothing calling for note until we have 
advanced a considerable step into the Melanesian area. By far the greater 
part of this western region falls somewhere along the regular series of 
progression downward : lango, rango, lang, leng, lao, lag, rag. 

Bugotu thango is unique, yet the sense and resemblance may be counted 
on to carry the unusual l-th mutation. The same may be remarked of 
the prosthetic g in Nggao glango. Nengone nengo and probably Murray 
Island warmer are carried in the company of Nukuoro nango, the /-«. mutation 
appearing in no less than five Polynesian languages, and in Melanesia 
several times recurring in lima (313). The Epi forms are out of step, for 
Bierian without explanation acquires an initial vowel alago, and Baki jago 
presents an l-j mutation which is supported only by lingi (154) to pour 
Aneityum aijangjing, and lima (312) five Epi jimo Aneityum ni-jman. 
Motu lao, as is a by no means uncommon accord between these two widely 
separated languages, is Tahiti rao. The dropping of the I in Guadalcanar 
ango appears nowhere else in the life-history of the word; the form is 
recorded by Tregear without statement of its source; it is clearly from 
a speech other than Vaturanga. The same author preserves the Solomon 
Island lau-au, but with no record of what one of the many languages of 
that archipelago employs it ; there is such a resemblance to Malay and Dyak 
forms that I have little hesitation in assigning it to the Post- Polynesian 
period. 

The Indonesian forms exhibit the usual local peculiarities in dealing 
with loan material, but the sense is plain. 

The Arabic most resembles the Indonesian, differing therefrom most 
markedly in the intrusion of a palatal between a and u in the final syllable, 
and this is the point where the Indonesian forms least resemble the Proto- 
Samoan. We shall, therefore, have to regard the Semitic as yet farther 
removed from suggestion of a common origin with the Polynesian and 
Melanesian stem. 

310. 
lau, kalau, kolau, kalai, a spiderweb. 

Samoa: apungaleveleve, apongaleveleve, a spider, a web. Tonga: 

kaleveleve, a large spider. Futuna: kaleveleve, a spider, a web. 

Niue: kaleveleve, a cobweb. Nukuoro: halaneveneve, a spider. 
Uvea: kavelevele, a spider. Mangareva: pungaverevere, a spider. 

Paumotu: pungaverevere, cloth. Mangaia: pungaverevere, a 



362 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

cobweb. Tahiti: puaverevere, id. Maori: pungawerewere, 

puawerewere, puwerewere, a spider. Hawaii: punawelewele, 

a spider, a web. Marquesas: pukaveevee, punaveevee, id. 
Viti: lawa, a fishing net; viritdlawalawa, a cobweb; butalawalawa, 

a spider. 
Sesake: kalau, a spiderweb. Mota: talau, id.; marawa, a spider. 

Motu: valavala, a cobweb. Aneityum: nilva, a cobweb; 

nilvanilva, caulfat of a pig. 
Malay: labalaba, lawalawa, a spider; sarang-lawalawa, a cobweb. 

Visayas: /awa, a cobweb. 
Hebrew : 'arab, to weave. 

This word has provided the theme of a curious paper by Mr. Tregear 
(32 Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, 298). 

There is an enormous metathesis here, and for that reason I have ordered 
my Polynesian material in two groups, leve and vele. It will be seen at 
once that the distinction is practically that of Proto-Samoan and Tongafiti, 
specifically older and later forms. With the Proto-Samoan go the forms 
in Viti, Efat^, Sesake, Mota, and perhaps Aneityum. Motu is the only 
Melanesian form in accord with the Tongafiti, and it will be recalled that 
several times, and no farther away than the last item, I have had occasion 
to remark upon the resemblance between Motu and Tahiti. 

Nor is this matter of the order 1-v or v-1 the only point of divergence. 
The stem is found free only in Viti, Bfate, Motu, and perhaps Aneityum. 
With it in composition we have two distinct elements. The simpler 
is ka, and probably ta is the same ; Nukuoro hala differs, yet we assign it 
provisionally with this element, for it certainly is not associable with the 
other. We find ka in Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Efatd, Sesake ; ta we find 
in Viti and Mota, and in the latter we find a ma distinguishing marawa the 
spider from talau the web. These are all Proto-Samoan, and they are all 
found as compoimds upon the Proto-Samoan stem leve, except Uvea which 
shows a mixture, Proto-Samoan ka and Tongafiti vele. 

The other compounding stem is, in series, apunga, punga, puna, puka, 
pua, pu. These are compounded upon Tongafiti vele, except Samoa which 
shows a mixture balancing contrarily the Uvea mixture, for Samoa has 
Tongafiti punga and Proto-Samoan leve. 

The lau of Bfat^, Sesake, and Mota will readily be recognized as a degen- 
eration form of a parallel Proto-Samoan stem lava, lav, lau. Aneit5mm 
nilva seems to be ni-liva, of which n functions as article and according to 
the common usage of that language extracts the nearest stem vowel ; but 
nilvanilva puzzles me ; I can hardly conceive it possible for a word to con- 
duplicate article-stem ; this casts a doubt upon the otherwise plain inter- 
pretation of nilva. 

The Indonesian here recorded preserves the Proto-Samoan stem, whereas 
more commonly it resembles Tongafiti forms. 

As to the Semitic; if Mr. Tregear and the Indonesian authorities can find 
their parent stem in the Sanskrit, and if Dr. Macdonald reads his title to a 
mansion in Semitic skies, the student of Polynesian may be justified in 
regarding each with equal doubt. 



DATA AND NOTES. 363 

le, leo, lo, to see ; lele, to look for ; leo, lo, to watch, to look. 

Samoa: leo, to watch. Tonga: leo, leohi, to watch, to guard. 

Futuna : leo, leosi, to watch, to be vigilant. Niue : leoleo, to 

guard, to watch over, to protect. Uvea: leoleohi, to guard. 

Viti: rai, seeing, to look; raitha, to look at. Rotuma: io, to look. 

Marina: leleo, to see. Malo: leo, to look; leleo, to open the eyes. 

Bierian: mleo, to look, to open the eyes. 
Malay: Hat, to see, to look. Malagasy: hiratra, sight, seeing. 
Hebrew: ra'ah, to see. Arabic: ra'a', id. Ethiopic: re'ya, id. 
The Proto-Samoan stem is leos. 

Our Melanesian forms are in exact accord with the Nuclear Polynesian 
and with the Efat6 leo. In Efat6 we may easily see in le a still further 
degradation of stem, but lo with an internal abrasion is anomalous. 

The position of Viti rai, raitha, is baffling. It suggests a stem rais as a 
parent. If we look upon Efat6 as suggesting an origin for rai, raitha from 
rais raises an insuperable obstacle, for in the series leos-leo-le it will be seen 
that le is twice removed from the least hint of s, and rais would need to 
have les in Efat^, which neither is nor could be found. 

The Malay may stand as a good identification, the Malagasy not. Simi- 
larly the Semitic has a palatal to prevent identification with leos. 

312. 
lima, five. 

Samoa, Futuna, Niue, Nukuoro, Nuguria, Sikayana, Hawaii: lima, 
five. Maori, Tahiti, Rarotonga, Rapanui, Moriori, Aniwa, 

Fotuna, Mangareva: rinia, id. Tonga, Uvea: nima, id. 

Moiki: ngima, id. Marquesas: ima, id. 

Viti: lima, five. Rotuma: Ham, id. 

Pala: liman, five. Epi, Solomon Islands, Sesake, Arag, Makura, 
Malo, Santo, Nggela, Bugotu, Nggao, New Georgia, Lambell, 
Moanus, Kiriwina: /ima, id. Nada: aqai-lima, id. Tagula: 
go-lima, id. Brierly Island : paihe-lima, id. Bierian : ilima, id. 
Santo Wulua : kilima, id. Paama, Omba, Malanta, Likkilikki : 
lime, id. Yela: limi, id. Epi: limo, id. Baki: jimo, id. 
Tangoan Santo, Marina: Una, id. Duke of York, Laur, 

Lamassa, New Ireland (Port Praslin), Ambrym: lim, id. Ero- 
manga : (Sie) siklim, id. ; (Utaha) sukrim, id. ; (Ura) suorem, id. 
King: telim, id. Malekula Pangkumu: erim, id. Malekula, 
Wango, Fagani : rima, id. Kubiri, Panaieti : nima, id. Misima, 
Panaieti: nima-ma-panuna, id. Mukawa: nima-masiana, id. 
Taupota: nima-ruag'a-i-tutu, ten. Galavi: ko-ma-nima-sago, 
six. Kiviri: nim, five. Murua: qei-nim, id. Tavara: 
nim-i-tutu, id. Espiritu Santo : /wm, id. Tanna: (Weasisi) 
karilum, id. ; (Kwamera) karirum, id. ; (Naviliag) kadilum, id. ; 
(Numerat, Nerokwag) kilkilep, id. ; {R.3i'na)kerkerep, id . Waima, 
Roro, Mekeo, Uni, Pokau, Doura, Kabadi, Motu, Domara, 
Mailu: ima, id. Boniki: ima-i-kove, id. Sinaugoro, Hula, 
Keapara, Galoma, Keakalo, Rubi: imaima, id. Galavi: 
ma-i-kove, id. Lo: tevelima,id. Mota: tavelimwafid. Gog: 



364 



THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



tavalima, id. Aneityum: ni-jman, ni-kman, id. Maewo: 
tevelim, id. Norbarbar : teveliem, id. Merlav : tavalimw, id. 
Mosin: tevelimw, id. Vuras, Motlav, Volow: tevelem, id. 

Lakon : tivilem, id. Sasar, Pak : 'evelem, id. Leon : 'evelimw, id. 
Re tan: tavalemw, id. 

Malay, Java, Cajeli, Morella, Batumerah, Teor, Magindano, Champa, 
Sulu, Sambawa, Visa^'^as, Tagalog, Pampangas, Kayan, Mame, 
Salayer, Sanguir, Mayapo, Massaratty, Amblaw, Awaiya, 
Caimarian, Teluti, Ahtiago, Baju: lima, five. Lampong: 

limah, id. Saru: limoh, id. Togean Islands: limo, id. 
Kjsa: liman, id. Bouton: limanu, id. Salibabo: delima, id. 
Timor: lema, id. Basakrama: lento, id. Sirang, Gah, Mysot : 
lim, id. Gani: leplim, id. Menado, Liang, Bolanghitam, 
Lariko, Saparua, Matabello: rima, id. Jobi, Dorey: rim, id. 
Wahai: nima, id. Malagasy: dimy, id. Dyak: ma, id. 

Arabic: h'amsat, h'ams, five. Mahri: khomo, id. Sokotra: 

khemah, id. 

The numeral five being in many cases the same word as that for the hand 
on which the tale is reckoned we shall first note the cases in which the sense 
differentiation is indicated by a form modification. By comparison with 
313 it will be seen that such distinction is foimd as follows : 





Five. 


Hand. 


Remarks. 


Maori 


rima 


ringa 


w-mutant 


Viti 


lima 


linga 
ririma 


" 


Moriori 


rima 


preduplication 


Marquesas .... 


tmi 


itmi 


" 


Wango 


nma 


rzmarima 


conduplication 


Ulawa 


lima 


nimamma 


and /-mutant 


Fagani 


rima 


ruma 


i-mutant 


Tanna 


kari-lum 


neVlinii 


" (inverted order) 


Baki. . . . 


]imo 
lim 


juma 
lima 


" and a-mutant 


Duke of York . 


abbreviated five 


Laur 


lim 


lima 


" " 


Lamassa 


lim 


lima 


" " 


Omba 


lime 


limegi 


final accretion {gi noun formative) 


Cajeli 


lima 


limamo 


il n 


^lorella 


lima 


litnaka 


" " 


Batumerah . . . 


lima 


limawah 


" " 


Teor 


lima 


Ihnin 


" (o-mutant) 


Liang 


rima 


rimak 


Maewo 


tavalima 


lima 


frontal accretion of five 


Merlav 


tavalimw 


lima 


" " " " 


Mota 


tavelimwa 


limwai 


" " " " 


Lo 


ievelima 
lima 


limwe 
alima 


frontal accretion of hand 


Magindano .... 


Bouton 


limanu 


olima 


" " " " 


Menado 


nma 


rilma 


interior intrusion 


Nggao 


lima 


kanie 




Bierian 


ilima 


ma 




King 


telim 


lama 





Which of these is the primal signification? Is the numeral called by the 
hand name because of its five digits? Is the hand called by the numeral 
because its digits tot up five? So far as I have seen, all my predecessors 



DATA AND NOTES. 365 

in these studies have assumed that there is first the hand and then by the 
accuracy of digital mathematics the numeral has followed. 

It has not been found necessary to call the numeral one after some object 
which is a visible unit in nature: one is not the word for nose, for an 
instance; nor is two the word for eyes or ears, which as pairs upon the 
primitive mathematician are surely as visible, tangible, obvious as the five 
fingers of one hand. Three is found to be independent of any such concrete 
presentation; four also. Why, then, must five be considered a secondary 
sense of hand ? 

As to our English five we might see a beautiful reasonableness in naming 
it from the fingers of our own mathematical hands. We stick up our fingers 
in reckoning ; the first task of our nursemaid mathematicians at school is to 
teach the child that sums are no longer to be done on the fingers but on 
slates with pencils. Thereafter follows mental arithmetic with a new series 
of tortures all its own. 

But in the islands of our study fingers go not up but down for the count. 
The hand with its digits displayed coram publico is zero, cipher, naught. 
It is the clenched fist which counts most, it reckons five ; a usage paralleled, 
to be sure, in our idiom of that noble art of defending usually most ignoble 
selves, "I put my 'bunch of fives' in his — " mug, was it? Or peeper? Or 
possibly breadbasket, this being before the days when solar plexus had 
given to the ring the dignity of astrological anatomy. The five of the 
clenched fist I recall from many an island race. 

Let me, however, confirm my testimony from an authority who believes 
that five is the hand, Dr. Codrington (Melanesian Languages 222, notei) : 

The way of reckoning on the fingers differs in various islands. In Nengone the fingers 
are turned up and brought together at five. In the Banks Islands the fingers are turned 
down. This is often done with the spoken numerals, often without the use of words. 
The practice of turning down the fingers, contrary to our practice, deserves notice, as 
perhaps explaining why sometimes savages are reported to be unable to count above 
four. The European holds up one finger, which he counts, the native counts those that 
are down and says "four." Two fingers held up, the native counting those that are 
down, calls three; and so on until the white man, holding up five fingers, gives the 
native none turned down to count. The native is nonplussed, and the enquirer reports 
that savages can not count above four. 

It may well be that I shall seem heterodox in placing five as the parent 
sense, yet if there be any meaning at all in the foregoing table I am resting 
upon demonstrable facts and not upon mere fancy. Many of the languages 
collated in this and the next item show no difference in form between the 
two senses, the word is the same. Such instances are negative, they lack 
evidential value, they prove nothing, they disprove nothing. 

This table which I have compiled is far from complete ; in many languages 
I have the five word and the hand word has not been recorded in the scanti- 
ness of most of this vocabulary material. Here I have assembled twenty- 
eight languages, all that I have been able to bring into comparison, in which 
the five word and the hand word are homogenetic yet variant. I might 
have extended the list by the inclusion of languages in which the five word 
is a lima form and the hand word is heterogenetic. These I omit, for, while 
they are not without their value in pointing to a primal five-lima, they 
would beyond that complicate the problem by the addition of incommen- 
stirable factors. 



366 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

We shall then examine these eight-and-twenty languages. Four lan- 
guages seem to point one way, two dozen point the other. The twenty-four 
congruent languages have the five-/iwa in its clearest form, and hand-lima 
has undergone some form of secondary mutation, the nature of which is 
indicated in the remarks. 

The four opposing languages are now to be examined for the ascertain- 
ment of the value of their testimony. Tanna is an island remote from either 
of our migration streams, the quality of its Pol}Tiesian content is absolutely 
the lowest in my scale. The fivt-lima and the hand-lima are alike obscured 
by alien admixture, so much so that they are barely recognizable. The 
testimony of Tanna, therefore, should not for one moment count against 
the agreement of twenty-four. 

The Duke of York has not only lim for five, but also lima. The posses- 
sion of the latter is sufficient to remove this speech from this consideration ; 
it belongs in the outer ring in which the five word and the hand word are 
the same lima. 

Laur and Lamassa (and King, despite another variation element, may be 
associated therewith) are really the only evidence in opposition. What do 
these witnesses amoimt to against a principle established in our triple area, 
in Polynesia, in Melanesia, in Indonesia? They are three languages, dia- 
lectic variety at best, spoken on the New Ireland coast in the very jaws of 
the eastern gateway. The source from which I derive the vocabularies con- 
tains also a social register, a city directory, of two of these abodes, or huts, 
of cultvu-e : Lamassa has a population of 23 men, 28 women married to them, 
and 40 single persons including children ; King is peopled by 38 women and 
girls, 30 men and boys. Not many in the census are these who reverse the 
system of the whole Pacific. 

On the whole we may disregard such exceptions entirely. Therefore I 
am willing to aver that in every case where fiYe-lima and hand-lima differ 
it is the latter that is secondary in form ; therefore five it is which is the 
primordial sense; the hand is lima simply by virtue of its possession of 
five enumerable fingers. 

The following notes have to do with the varieties in form of the five-lima. 

In Baki and in some other unnamed dialect of Epi the of jimo, limo, is 
explicable on my theory of the neutral vowel ; this vowel change is foimd 
in Basakrama, Saru, and the Togean Islands in Indonesia. The l-j muta- 
tion occurs also in Aneityum ni-jman. The m-n mutation in Marina and 
Tangoan Santo Una is found again in manu (317) bird Marina nanu, and 
mata (324) eye Marina nata. Eromanga shows a /iw-composite with the 
element sik-suk-suo. Motu ima finds its only congener in the extreme 
east, not in Tahiti this time but in theadjacent archipelago of the Marquesas. 
Aneitytun, with «-article and attraction of the nearest vowel, yields two 
forms, jiman and kiman, each with the n suffix. The former has already 
been discussed ; the l-k mutation is foimd only once again in lima (313) hand 
Nggao kame Vaturanga kima. We now find in the northern New Hebrides 
a group of lima forms prefaced by tava in no less than four vowel variants 
and a fifth in which the initial t has been abraded. Not a word of expla- 
nation is offered in any of Codrington's disquisitions upon these numerals. 
I venture the suggestion that the added element may find some illumination 



DATA AND NOTES. 367 

in Efate tefa (24) to arrange in a row, as one who should tally one-two- 
three-four, and five-in-a-row, this being as plain to view when the fingers 
are down as when they are up. The prefix in Bierian ilima and Malekula 
Pangktunu erini is probably not a formative accretion ; it is very close to 
such a truly Polynesian use as e lima for five, the e being the visible sign 
that lima functions as verb. Thus, also, may Santo Wulua and King be 
accounted for. In Tanna we have (Weasisi, Kwamera, Naviliag) three 
composites of a lima form {lum, rum) with the initial element kari. In two 
other Tanna forms (Numerat, Nerokwag, Ra'na) we see feari-variants 
{kil, ker) capable of carrying the five sense without lum. Therefore I 
regard the karilum forms as determinant composites in which each member 
has the same meaning. 

In Indonesia the variations are less extreme. We note composites in 
Salibabo and Gani, but neither de- nor lep- is at all associable with the 
composition members which have been found in Melanesia. Wahai nima 
reproduces Tonga, Uvea, and Moiki forms, yet the only trace thereof in 
Melanesia is found in lima (313) hand Saa ninime New Ireland nemdn 
Nifilole nime Ulawa nimanima, for which we have no record of a five-Ztwa. 
Dyak ma finds a transition phase in Motu ima and yet more positive 
support in Bierian ma hand. 

It is quite impossible to see in Arabic h'ams a form homogenetic with 
lima. 

313- 
lima, nalima na, the hand. 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Nukuoro, Futuna, Nine, Sikayana, Hawaii, Mana- 
hiki: lim,a, hand, arm. Liueniua: m-akalima, id. Tahiti, 
Rarotonga, Nuguria, Aniwa, Fotuna, Rapanui, Mangareva, 
Paumotu: rima, id. Moriori: ririma, id. Maori: ringa, id. 
Tonga, Uvea: nima, id. Moiki: ngima, id. Marquesas: 
iima, ima, id. 
Viti : linga, hand, arm. 

Epi, Maewo, Merlav, Gog, Nggela, Arag, Malo, Mota, Santo, Lakon, 
Bugotu, Buka, Duke of York, New Georgia, New Britain, 
Baravon, Pala, Laur, Lamassa: lima, the hand, arm. Alite: 
limalima, id . New Ireland (Carteret Harbor) : limak, bralima, id. 
Ruavatu: lime namanu, wing oi a, bird. Omba: limegi, hand, 
arm. Buka: lema, id. Mota: limwai, id. Lo: limwe, id. 
Kiriwina: iamila, id. King: lama, id. Marina: Una, id. 
Wango: rimarima, id. Mugula, Tavara, Taupota, Galavi, 
Kubiri, Kiviri: nima, id. Suau, Sariba, Tubetube, Panaieti, 
Tagula, Nada, Dobu, Wedau, Mukawa: nima, hand, arm. 
Ulawa: nimanima, hand. Nifilole: nime, id. Sa-a: ninime, id. 
New Ireland (Dufiield) : nemdn, id. Epi : sima, id. Vaturanga : 
kima, id. Hula, Keapara: gima, hand, arm. Sinaugoro: 
gima, hand. Nggao: kame, id. Epi: yima, id. Roro, 
Motu: ima, arm. Mekeo, Pokau, Galoma, Rubi: ima, hand, 
arm. Uni, Doura, Kabadi, Sinaugoro, Galavi, Boniki, Kwa- 
gila: ma, hand. Kabadi: iwona, arm. Roro: »wo«a, hand. 
Fagani: ruma, id. Epi (Baki) : juma, id. Oiun: uma, id. 



368 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Epi (Bierian) : ma, id. Aneityum: ni-jman, ni-kman, id. 

Tanna: nel'limi{n), id. Santo Wulua: lemantra, id. 

Macassar, Champa, Sulu: lima, hand, arm. Kisa: liman, id. 

CajeU: limamo, id. Morella: limaka, id. Batumerah: 

limawah, id. Magindano: alima, id. Bouton: olima, id. 

Teor: limin, id. Bolanghitam: rima, id. Liang: rimak, id. 

Menado: rilma, id. 
Arabic : alh'ams, the fingers. 
Most of the form varieties here presented have received consideration 
in the preceding item. Note should be made of the fact that the meaning 
includes the whole member from fingertip to shoulder, along the inner 
aspect as far as the axilla. Two forms, sima and yima, assigned to Epi 
without particularization of dialect, are entirely anomalous, yet their der- 
ivation from lima is not to be doubted. Santo Wulua lema-ntra introduces 
an unexplained element ; the same is true of the Tanna composite and of 
the br alima of Carteret Harbor in New Ireland. 

314- 
lolofa, lulum, lumu, to be wet, moistened ; luma, to sink, to dip. 

Samoa: lolo, lofia, to flood, to overflow; lolo, to be wet (as the 
clothes) . Tonga : lolo, to rain in torrents ; lomaki, flood, deluge. 
Futuna : lofia, inundated, submerged, inundation ; lomaki, deluge, 
inundation. Nine: lofia, overflowed. Uvea: lolo, to flow; 
lovai, deluge; lomaki, id. Maori: roma, a stream; rumaki, 
to duck in the water. Hawaii : lu, to dive or plunge in the 
water; luma, lumai, to put to death by putting the head under 
water. Mangareva: akarumakimaki, to dive often, to inun- 
date. Paumotu: rumaki, to sink in the water. 
Viti : luvu, to sink in the water, to drown ; luvutha, to flood, to over- 
flow; luvuraka, to put under the water, to press a thing down 
under the water; ndrondro, a current, chiefly of the sea. 
Raluana : lowon, a stream ; lolonga, to flow. Duke of York : lomon, 

a flood. Kiviri: loloro, a river. 
Malagasy: rubuka, plunged, dipped, soaked. 

Hebrew. seba' , to dip into; 'istaba', to be wet, moistened. Arabic, 
Chaldee, id. 
We find two stems, lof and lorn, each showing a tendency to vowel shift 
and appearing as luf, lum. 

The common factor is lo or lu, the common signification of water and a 
motion, one of water in motion, the other of motion into water. These 
senses are not restrictive in the languages which have both stems, and we 
are not warranted in suggesting more than that there may have been a 
distinctive value to each of the terminal consonant modulants, but that 
in the drift along the ages and across the seas the distinction has in some 
places become obscured. 

Stem lof. This is found in Efate, Samoa, Futuna, Uvea, Nine, Raluana, 
with the 0- radical. This is accordingly seen to be Nuclear Polynesian ; 
the omission of Tonga from the habitat of this stem is due to the fact that 
our dictionary authority afi'ords no instance which distinctly proves a lof 
form, yet Tonga records lolo, which in Samoa is seen to belong to lof. 



DATA AND NOTES. 369 

Stem lom. This occurs in Tonga, Futuna, Uvea, Niue, Maori, and Duke 
of York with the o-radical ; and with the it- radical in Bfate, Maori, Hawaii, 
Mangareva, and Paumotu. If it were not for the zt-radical in Efate we 
should be wholly justified in the statement that lof and lom are Proto- 
Samoan, lum Tongafiti; and this is indeed probable, for Maori roma is 
explicable as carried by the direct migration which otur material shows to 
have passed from Nuclear Polynesia to New Zealand. This would afford 
us an explanation of malu water, the bonito fishing euphemism. It might 
be a conditional form of the lum stem, adopted for this purpose as a slightly 
ahen word and therefore incomprehensible since the bonito tmderstands 
Samoan perfectly. This would not be the only instance in which the 
honorific speech has drawn from a foreign source. 

In the Viti ndrondro is clearly the Proto-Samoan lolo (lof stem) and the 
reinforcement of the r points out that the primal stem was rof with r 
grasseye. Luvu would seem to be a vowel mutation on the luf stem 
derived from a source in which the r had become /. Against this is to be 
set the fact of luvutha and luvuraka. The former implies a stem luvuh, 
luvus, or luvut; in the latter we may choose to regard, and with much 
reason, the r of raka as non-radical and that this termination is applied 
evenly to all open stems. 

Without support in transition forms we are not at liberty to admit the 
Malagasy, the extraneous k being the obstacle. 

The Semitic is, of course, beyond the range of possibility; the sole point 
of resemblance being the b, and this is not sufficient to carry the load of 
the former consonants. 

315- 
mala, malala, the cleared place in each village where the ceremonial drums 
are set up; a place or part (as of a garden) ; malmal, a small 
place or part. 
Samoa : malae, the town green. Nukuoro : malae, a cleared space, 
an open place, a plantation. Tonga : malae, a green, a grass 
plot. Futuna, Uvea : malae, the public place in front of the 
houses. Hawaii : maZae, smooth (as a plain) . Niue: male, 
an open space, plaza of a village. Fotuna: marai, public 
house. Maori: marae, an inclosed place in front of a house. 
Tahiti: marae, the sacred place of worship. Mangaia: marae, 
the sacred inclosure of sacrifice. Tongarewa : marae, a sacred 
inclosure. Paumotu: marae, a temple. Mangareva: warae, 
a temple. Nuguria : marai, an open meeting-place. 
Viti: mar a, a burying-place. 

Nggela: male, malei, a place. Laur: malar, a town, a place. 

Bierian: ka-mali, public house, village. Baki: ko-meli, id. 
Malekula: he-mir, id. 
Malay: balai, an audience hall, a reception room. 
Arabic: 'ard\ 'ard', 'arat, an open place. Hebrew: 'arah, ma'ar, 
a naked space ; ma'drah, a plain or field devoid of trees. 

In note 261 I have advanced the opinion that malae is in form a condi- 
tional derivative of lae. This holds of the signification found in Nuclear 
Polynesia. The secondary sense which the Tongafiti carried to eastern 



370 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Polynesia has obscured the lae element ; but the sacrosanct content of the 
marae in the four-godded theology of eastern Polynesian is after all but a 
logical outgrowth of the Nuclear Polynesian malae as the civic center of 
social life where god is sole, supreme — and Lucretian. We note with 
interest that the Maori marae is Nuclear Polynesian rather than Tongafiti — 
again that Samoan voyage due south. 

In the Viti rara is the town green. Mara, therefore, shows the condi- 
tional form of this abbreviated ra-stem. 

In Bfate mala is the homotype of Viti rara, and the subduplication 
malala is clearly a duplication of stem la under the conditional prefix. It 
is clear, then, that malmal, duplicated mal, can have nothing to do with 
mala, and there is nothing in the signification to require its association 
therewith. 

In the remainder of our Melanesian material we shall have no difficulty 
in following out the signification by metonymy, its most conspicuous area 
standing for the town which surrounds it. The word public house in Epi 
and Malekula is awkward as suggesting the tavern idea with its connotation 
in the English mind of the traffic in liquors. Island hospitality maintains 
the largest house in every hamlet for the reception of visitors, and as this is 
always at the point of honor on the town green it might reasonably assume 
the designation thereof. Aneityum has inmaleom, inmaliyum, inmalyum, 
town or city. At first sight, after dissociating the article in, they look 
like malae homogenetics. They arfe really composites of in-mal a collection 
of objects and com, (265) house. 

Without supporting evidence the Malay halai (Tregear's suggestion) is 
no more than an interesting resemblance. 

The Semitic stems in 'rh. The resemblance to the Polynesian lies only 
with respect to the / of the simple Za-stem, and this is not enough to serve 
as a basis for further deduction. 

316. 

malum, weak, faint, soft. Cf. malua 4. 

Samoa: malil, gentle, easy, soft. Tonga: malu, loose, soft, mild, 
easy. Uvea, Nukuoro: malu, tender, soft. Hawaii: malu, 
quiet. Futuna: malu, tender. Nuguria: maru, soft. Tahiti: 
maru, soft, gentle, easy. Paumotu : hakamaru, to grow milder. 
Rapanui: maruaki, to decay. 

Viti: malumu, weak, faint, sick, soft. 

Nggela, Savo, Bugotu : malumu, soft. Duke of York : 7nalumalum, 
to faint with hunger; galom, soft. Malekula: malum, soft, 
meek, gentle. Laur: ma/mo/Mw^awa, weak, feeble. Maewo, 
Merlav, Malo, Mota : maZMmZMm, soft. Mota.: malu, \6.. Vuras, 
Santo: melumlum, id. Mosin, Norbarbar: molumlum, id. 

Pak, Sasar, Motlav: mulumlum, id. Aneityum: mulmul, id. 
Vaturanga: maluka, id. Lo: melunglung, id. Alo Teqel: 
mulunglung, id. Volow: melemwlemw, id. Lambell; mala, 
weak, feeble. Tangoan Santo: nalum, soft, meek, gentle. 
Fagani: marumurumu, soft. Lamassa: manlu, calm (of the 
wind. Mukawa: werttmerwna, soft. Kubiri: mewerMwa, id. 



DATA AND NOTES. 371 

Saparua, Teluti : malu, soft. Matabello, Gah : maluis, id. Amblaw : 
maloh, id. Batumerah: maluta, id. Malagasy: lemi, soft- 
ness, meekness; malemi, soft, meek, gentle. Malay: lamah, 
soft, flexible, weak. Java: lamas, id. 
Arabic: haluma, halim', to be gentle, weak. 

The stem is malum or malumu. This is in form a conditional of lumu, 
a primitive not yet as such identified. 

In the Polynesian we have the utmost abrasion in malu. This may per- 
haps be identified with Lambell mala. I have associated herewith Lamassa 
manlu; we are not yet sufficiently acquainted with this recently reported 
language to know whether n is such an infix as is common in the not distant 
Indonesia, or if man is a local form of the common ma-conditional. 

The malum form appears in Efat6 and Malekula. Vaturanga maluka is 
not properly in this family; it forms a small group with Eromanga molok- 
loku, Sesake mamikunuku, Mota manoga, and Motu manoka. On the w-w 
mutation in Tangoan Santo nalum see note 312. The Duke of York galom 
may not be malum, but there can be no doubting the identity of lorn. 

The subduplicated malumlum occupies an interesting position in the New 
Hebrides and is illuminative of the manner in which loan material is broken 
in foruse byanalien race. Itwillmore convenientlybe studied by dissection. 
The wo-conditional retains its a in Maewo, Merlav, Malo, Mota. It becomes 
me in Vuras, Santo, Lo and Volow. Mosin and Norbarbar have altered it 
to mo. Pak, Sasar, Motlav, and Alo Teqel have allowed it to degenerate 
to mu. If we regard this last as an attraction to the vowel of the lum 
element we shall find the same principle of attraction operative in Volow 
melemwlemw, but not in ho melunglung. The lum-stem remains unaltered 
over the greater part of this subdistrict ; in Lo and Alo Teqel it becomes 
lung; in Volow it not only changes to the difficult mw, but accompanies it 
with a vowel change to e. 

Aneityum mulmul offers a problem. Codrington (Melanesian Languages 
91) suggests the probability that it is metathetic for lumlum ; metathesis is 
rarely employed in Aneityum, but see pula (284) to shine Aneityum laav, 
lav, and it would be the solitary instance in which we have identified the 
primal stem lum. On the other hand Aneityum has taken such liberties 
with its Pol3mesian loan material that if we regard mulmul as a degraded 
mulumulu the foregoing note as to the impracticability of Efat6 malmal 
would have far less application. The duplication anomalies of Duke of 
York malumalum, and Laur malmalungana are less considerable when we 
record that the remote languages of the eastern portal have developed their 
duplication mechanics along lines quite other than those which I have 
estabUshed for Polynesia. 

In Indonesia the best identification, despite wide vowel diversity, is the 
Malagasy. Inverting the apparently metathetic Java and Malay forms we 
find stems in s, malas, malah, akin to Amblaw maloh, probably to Matabello 
and Gah maluis, and by a frequent change akin to Batumerah maluta. For 
this reason the malu of Saparua and Teluti, despite its present identity with 
Pol5Tiesian malu, probably is an abraded malus. 

In the Arabic haluma we should have a close resemblance if it were 
possible to establish the identity of ha as a conditional and homogenetic 
with ma. 



372 TH^ POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

317- 
manu, a bird. 

Samoa, Tonga, Tahiti, Mangareva, Rarotonga, Mangaia: manu, 
birds and animals in general. Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Fotuna, 
Bukabuka : manu, animals. Maori, Hawaii, Nnguria, Rapanui, 
Marquesas, Tongarewa : manu, hirds. Paumotu: manu, birds; 
manumanu, animals, insects. 

Viti : manumanu, birds and animals. Rotuma : manman, birds. 

New Ireland (Carteret Harbor) : manuk, bird. Tanna: manug, id. 
Motu, Sesake, Bpi, Bierian, Maewo, Mota, Ulawa, Wango, 
Bululaha, Fagani, Saa, Arag, Omba, Vaturanga, Bugotu, Nggela, 
Nguna, Ruavatu, Ugi, Belaga, Pokau, Kabadi, Sinaugoro, 
Hula, Keapara, Galoma, Rubi, Suau, Nada, Awalama, Taupota, 
Mukawa, Wedau: manu, id. JJni: manumanu, id. Lambell, 
Lamassa, Tubetube, New Ireland (Carteret Harbor) : mani, id. 
Kiriwina, Dobu: manua, id. Moanus: manual, id. Merlav, 
Mota, Norbarbar, Gog, Vuras, Mosin, Tubetube, Murua, Pala, 
Laur: man, id. Brierly Island: maan, id. Aneityum: 

in-man, id. Makura : na-man, id. Eromanga : menok, id. Baki, 
West Epi: menu, id. Pak, Motlav, Norbarbar, Sasar, Volow: 
men, id. Malekula. : ni-min, id. Vanua Lava, Lo, Alo Teqel, 
Retan: mow, id. Alite: ma/tt, id. Marina: nanu, id. Kubiri, 
Raqa, Oiun: mamu, id. Lakon: m,ah, id. Tagula: ma, id. 

Malay, Sulu, Visayas : manuk, hird. Guaham: manug, id. Savu, 
Kisa, Menado, Sanguir, Sula, Morella, Caimarian, Baju, Sali- 
babo: manu, id. Togean Islands: manu, the domestic fowl 
{ton ji, hird). Ronton: manumanu, hird. Amblaw, Awaiya : 
manue, id. Cajeli: manui, id. Mayapo: manuti, id. Teluti: 
manuo, id. Ahtiago: manuwan, id. Kayan, Magindano, 
Matu, Gah, Matabello, Teor: manok, id. Bolanghitam: 

manoko, id. Saparua, Lariko, Liang, Batumerah: mano, id. 
Gani : manik, id . Waigiou Alf uros : mani, id . Dyak : monok, id . 
Wahai: malok, id. Malay: burung, id. Malagasy : vur una, id. 

Hebrew: parah, to Ry. Syriac: pdrah, id.; parohto, hirds. Arabic: 
farhu, young of birds. Hebrew : efroah, id. 

Several of the early missionaries comment with a fine sense of humor upon 
the mistake the islanders made in calling the cow when first seen a bird. 
This is the word which led the good missionaries into the error of their own 
ignorance. 

Manu is as wholesale in its signification as our word animal, it is generic. 
In the paucity of brute mammalia the first missionaries f oimd this general 
term most frequently used of birds, and it was their and not a Polynesian 
mistake to translate manu into bird. In the material here collected it will 
be seen that the significations animal and bird are widely extended. In 
the Paumotu insects are included ; the same is true of Mota, where manu 
signifies beetle as well as bird. Nor is its applicability restricted to earth 
and air; it reaches into the sea as well. Samoa uses i'amanu (fish-animal) 
for the whale, and see note 130 for a discussion of manu in the fish sense. 
Lakon mah means bird and fish. If this stood by itself we might accept it 



DATA AND NOTES. 373 

as manu in an advanced stage of dilapidation ; but since it appears as mes 
in Vuras and as masi in Maewo we see that it can not be from the manu-stem. 
Aside from this Lakon mah the Melanesian identifications are sufficiently 
satisfactory to pass without detailed comment. We find a final palatal in 
New Ireland, Tanna, and Bromanga. The former might be ascribed to a 
Post- Polynesian Indonesian source, but Tanna and Bromanga lie outside 
the limits which we may conveniently assign to the raids of Dyak prahus. 
On the other hand, if we ascribe the fe-final to a stem manuk we shall be 
forced to regard that as earlier than manu, both from the internal motion of 
the language and from the fact that these two languages in general preserve 
primitive forms. Two objections arise in opposition to the viewthat manuk 
is primordial : one that the k-Gnal has not been preserved in those Melane- 
sian languages which have an idiosyncratic disposition toward closed stems, 
and these are the languages in which the word appears as vian and variants ; 
the other that Indonesia in general preserves the later rather the earlier 
Polynesian forms, Tongafiti rather than Proto-Samoan. The Moanus 
manual may be a local suggestion of inflection ; yet since that language is 
the propylon of the eastern gateway, the nearest to Indonesia, we need 
have no hesitation in recognizing its association with such forms as Ahtiago 
manuwan, Teluti manuo, Amblaw and Awaiya manue, Cajeli manui. These 
occur in Ceram and Buru, south of Gilolo, and one might expect to find their 
influence most prominently felt through the southern gateway; but our 
earliest records from New Guinea distinctly mention Ceram as the source 
of the Malay raids along the north shores of that great island, therefore in 
the direction of Moanus. 

The preponderance of manuk-stems is manifest in the Indonesian record. 
Wahai malok shows the same n-l mutation as Alite malu. Malay burung 
and Malagasy vuruna are clearly homogenetic inter se; equally they are dis- 
sociated from the common word of the three island areas. 

If the Semitic has even a resemblance it can only be to the Malay and 
Malagasy, therefore none with the manu or manuk of this study. 

318. 
mate, to die ; matemate, to be quiet, soft, gentle ; matian, death ; matingo, 
the grave. 
Samoa : mate, to die (used of beasts; oti used of mankind). Tonga, 
Fakaafo, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Vate, Maori, Tahiti, Rarotonga, 
Marquesas, Mangareva, Bukabuka, Manahiki, Paumotu: mate, 
to die. Nukuoro: mate, id.; hakamate, to kill. Rapanui: 
mate, ill, dead, to die ; hakamate, to murder. Tongarewa : mate, 
death. Nuguria: umate, dead. Aniwa: komate, to be dead. 
Hawaii : make, to die. Fotuna : kono-mate, to die ; tah-mate, death. 
Viti: mate, to die. 

Merlav, Maewo, Omba, Arag, Marina, Malo, Bierian, Sesake, Nggela, 
Vaturanga, Nguna, Motu, Solomon Islands, Suau, Mota: mate, 
to die. Tubetube: unui-ia-mate, to kill. Fagani, Wango, 
Mekeo, Ulawa ; ma'e, to die. Doura : make, id . Kiriwina : katu- 
m,ata, to kill. Dobu : loe-m,asa, id. Saa : ma'e, ma'esie, to die; 
ha'ama'esi, to kill. Ugi : mae, to die ; haamaesi, to kill. Santo : 
mati, id. Nada, Massim, Murua: mati, to die. Mosin, Gog, 



374 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Lakon, Norbarbar, Retan, Pala, Laur, Lamassa, Duke of York, 
Motlav, Volow : mat, id. New Britain: matmat, makmak, sick, 
faint. Lambell, King: tmdt, to die. Buka: nimat, matte, 
maten, sick; mat, matte, amatte, dead. Pak, Alo Teqel; ma', 
to die. Sasar: ma, id. Ambrym: mar, id. Sinaugoro: 
tnase, id. Motu: maze, id. Kiriwina: masisi, id. Aneityum: 
vias,id. YuTdiS: meat, id. l,o: met, id. Malekula : we;', id. 
New Ireland (Dufifield) : oumet, id. Lifu: meci, id. Leon: 
me', id. lai: mok, id. 
Motlav, Vuras, Lakon, Retan, Marina, Vaturanga: mate, death. 
Merlav, Malo, Mota, Maewo : matea, id. Omba, Bierian, Arag, 
Nggela: waieawa, id. Fagani : ma'e/a, id. Wango (upland) : 
via' ha, id. Ulawa: ma'enga, id. Mosin: mata, id. Pak, 
Sasar: ma' a, id. Volow, Norbarbar: mete, id. Alo Teqel: 
me'e, id. Lo: miji, id. Malekula: mejan, id. 
Macassar : mate, dead. Malay : matt, to die. Malagasy : maty, dead ; 
matimaty, lukev/arm. Kisa: m,aki, dead. Magindano: to die. 
Arabic : mata, to die, to become calm (of wind), to soften by cooking. 
The employment of oti in Samoa for the death of a man is not so much 
euphemism as the paying of proper respect to the superior animal, for oti 
(219) means finished. To the high-minded Samoan there can be no sym- 
pathy with Ecclesiastes : ' 'the sons of men are a chance and the beasts are 
a chance, and one thing bef alleth them ; as the one dieth, so dieth the other ; 
yea, they have all one spirit; and man hath no preeminence above the 
beasts." 

Not the meanest Samoan sinks to the level of the brute, even in the 
article of death. The beast dies, the htunblest of men at least finishes. 

For them of high degree there is yet more compliment ; the head of the 
house dies not, but goes to the council (usufono), the chief goes on in majesty 
(maliu, afio), the heavens are rent in twain (masaesaelelangi) , and the rain 
beats down (timuto). Certain families die with circmnstance. Death comes 
not to Tangaloa, he has but gone far afishing (ta'atiu) ; and similarly on 
Asiata's demise the stools of bamboo are swept clean away (tafealetau'ofe), 
such a fishing has he gone upon. When Tuala goes the very winds hold 
their peace (matangitongaina) ; over the funeral mats of Fiame the moon 
comes tumbling out of the sky (pa'ulemasina) ; when Te'o's eyes are closed 
darkness palls the land (polenu'u), and when Mata'afa leaves the earth the 
heavens are turned upside down (mafulilelangi) . If this be euphemism it 
is of the nth power. 

In Melanesia we find a considerable area in which the full form of the 
mate-stem is preserved, and within it is a district at the extreme south of 
the Solomon Islands in which the t vanishes. Rudely and at a considerable 
distance Lifu meci may be considered to preserve the full stem, yet with 
such a t-k mutation as is found near by in lai mok, in one of Tregear's 
unprecisely localized New Britain forms, and in Hawaii and in the most 
modern Samoan. Interlaced with the mate-area, is another equally consid- 
erable in which we find the abraded mat. Aneityum mas rests upon the 
is mutation, which is rather well established ; it appears in Ugi haamaesi 
and occurs again in sa (337) bad Aneityiun has. Vuras meat probably 



DATA AND NOTES. 375 

results from the insertion of e before a and i before e in a closed syllable 
which Codrington (Melanesian Languages, 322) notes as characteristic of 
Volow ; there is, however, a possibility that it is rudely metathetic. Abra- 
sion proceeds still further to ma in Pak, Alo Teqel, and Sasar, and with 
vowel change to me in Leon. The noun forms follow the same course. 

In Indonesia the stem is rare, but the identifications here presented are 
satisfactory. 

The Semitic bears a strong resemblance. 

319- 
me, meme, urine; me, mea, to make water, to flow, to wet. 

Samoa: niimi, to make water; mianga, urine. Tonga, Futuna, 
Niue, Tahiti, Rarotonga, Marquesas, Mangareva: mimi, urine, 
to urinate. Paumotu, Nukuoro : «n"mt, to urinate. Nuguria, 
Rapanui: mimi, urine. Maori: mi, to urinate; m,imi, urine, 
to urinate ; mianga, urination, to urinate. Hawaii : mi, mimi, 
mia, to urinate ; mii, miana, the place for urinating, the member 
employed; mimi, urine. 

Viti: mi, mimi, urine, to urinate. 

Lamassa, Lambell, New Britain: mimi, urine, to urinate. Laur: 
mim, urine. Aneityum: ami, to urinate. Tanna: {t)ami, id.; 
n-ami, urine. Baravon, Duke of York: minimi, to urinate. 
King: minime, urine. Motu: mei, urine. Mota: meme, 
urine, to urinate. Malekula : meme, to urinate ; me-fwe, urine. 
Malo: meremere, urine, to urinate. 

Malagasy: amani, urine; mamani, to urinate. 

Arabic: mdha, to have water (of a well), to leak (of a ship), to 
pour water. Hebrew: me, euphemism for urine. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is clearly mi, for had it been a closed stem the 
commonly abraded consonant would have been preserved in the Samoan 
derivative, whereas we find it mianga. 

This stem is preserved through Melanesia with but few variations. For 
Malo meremere we can suggest no principle upon which to account for the 
r. Our other variants look toward Malagasy in two ways. Aneityum and 
Tanna have its introductory a, which is inexplicable. In the eastern gate- 
way we find the pure Polynesian mi, yet within sight of New Britain and 
New Ireland we find minimi on the Duke of York Group and even in New 
Britain itself in Baravon ; and in New Ireland King minime marches with 
Laur, Lambell, and Lamassa mimi, mim. This introduces the Malagasy n. 
I prefer to regard it as an infix and ascribe it to Post-Polynesian influence 
from Indonesia. 

As we have no supporting evidence in Indonesia the Malagasy forms may 
not wholly be accepted nor yet wholly denied. 

The Hebrew me is a resemblance, the Arabic mdha is foreign in sense and 
not easily to be reconciled in form. 

320. 
melu, shade, protection ; melu, melumelu, to be shady. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea: malu, a shade, a protection, 
to be sheltered, to be shaded. Hawaii: malu, a shade, a 



376 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

shadow. Tahiti, Raro tonga, Mangareva: warzt, id. Rapanui: 

hakamaru, to cover with shade; marumaru, a shade, dark; 

koona (place) marumaru, a shelter. Maori: maru, to be 

shaded, sheltered. Fotuna: marumaru, to be clouded, shade. 

Nukuoro: 7«artt, a shadow. Paumotu: /zafeawant, to shadow. 

Marquesas : mau, a shade, a shadow. 
Viti: malumalu, shade. 
New Britain : malur, shade. Baravon : malmalur, shady. Duke 

of York, Kabakada : marum, night. Matupit : marum, darkness. 

Lambell: morrom, dark. King: m,irruvi, id. Mota: malu, 

shade. Malo: mala, id. Malekula: na-mor, id. Baki: 

vamelu, id. Bierian: fomelu, id. 
Malagasy: vtalovialoka, shady, cool, gloomy. 
Hebrew: 'afel, 'afal, obscure, dark; 'amel, 'amel, to languish, to 

droop, to hang the head. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is malu, in contradistinction from malu cool of 
the malung-stem. 

The Polynesian and Efate are in sense agreement. The vowel a of 
Samoan malu would readily be represented in Efate by e; the e is not 
explained. 

In other of the New Hebrides the identifications may be followed readily 
as noted above. For comparison I include here Aneityum nalmui, nalmun, 
picture, shadow ; removing the w-article and restoring the attracted vowel 
to its proper position we find a stem lamu which might be admitted as 
metathetic mahv. In the eastern gateway we find what seems to be a very 
probable group of identifications ; in sense the passage from shade to dark- 
ness and thence to night is a rational chain, and there is no more form 
difficulty in malu-m,alur-marum-mirrutn. 

The Malagasy is probably homogenetic, but in the absence of central 
Indonesian forms we may not be positive. 

Where the Hebrew agrees in meaning it is remote in form; where the 
form seems to come into some suggestion of resemblance the sense is remote. 

321. 

mini-ngi, minu, minu-ngi, munu, munu-ngi, munuma, to drink. 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Nukuoro, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Nuguria, 
Maori, Tahiti, Hawaii, Marquesas, Mangareva, Mangaia, Tonga- 
rewa, Rarotonga, Manahiki : inu, to drink. Aniwa : inumia, id. 
Rapanui : unu, to drm\<i; hakaunuor a, to water, to make to drink. 
Sikayana: unu, id. Fotuna: no-einu, id. 

Viti: ngunuva, unuma, to drink. Rotuma: imi, id. 

Malo, Roro, Mekeo, Motu, Waima : inu, to drink. Motu, Pokau : 
inua, id. Nggela: inu, inuvia, id. King: iniim, id. Kabadi: 
inura, id. Uni: inui, id. Hula: niu, id. Sinaugoro, 
Keapara, Galoma, Rubi: inua, id. Uni: bibinu, id. Duke 
of York: inm, id. Motlav. in, nin, id. Malekula: wm, id. 
Mota : un, unuv, ima, id. Panaieti : im, id. Misima : nai-im, id. 
Lo: m-un, id. Nguna: manu, id. Makura: munum, id. 
Epi (Baki, Bierian): muni, id. Marina: o'omia, ulumia, id. 



DATA AND NOTES. 377 

Sariba, Tubetube, Dobu: numa, id. Tanna: 7iumi, id. Suau: 

nom, id. Tavara: uma, id. Taupota, Wedau, Galavi, 

Boniki: umai, id. Awalama; umaia, id. Kiriwina: muvi, id. 

Tanna: {t)amanum, id. Kiviri: toman, id. 'Ra.qa.-.tanuma, id. 

Kubiri: tonia, id. Oiun: torn, id. Murua: amomti, id. 

Aneityum: umnyi, id. 
Malay: minum, pinum, to drink. Pampangas: minom, id. Magin- 

dano: ominum, id. Tagalog: ominom, id. Malagasy: min- 

nuna, id. Java: nginum, id. Togean Islands : mangino, id. 
Syriac: mistuta, to drink. Chaldee: s't'a', 'is't'o', id. Hebrew: 

s' at' a, id. Bthiopic: sataya, id. Hebrew: s'akah, id. Arabic: 

saka' , id. Ethiopic: sakaya, id. 

It is by no means easy to determine the primal stem. We shall best 
consider the series of forms, paying no regard here to the vowel change. 

inum. Polynesia ubique, Viti, Rotuma, Malo, Motu, King, Duke of 

York, Motlav, Mota, Tanna, Marina. 
minum. Efate, Malekula, Lo, Nguna, Makura, Baki, Bierian, Tanna, 

Malay, Pampangas, Magindano, Tagalog, Java. 
minung. Efate, Malagasy, Togean Islands. 
inuv. Nggela, Mota. 
nginuv. Viti. 

The vowel interchange appears not to be critical, for most of the t-forms 
are paralleled by similar w-forms. 

The common factor of all these stems is inu; this may be modulated by 
a final m, ng or v, and by a frontal m, ng. If we take the position that m 
and ng may stem in a common parent we have simplified the problem in 
but a small degree ; we still have to consider an inu which may be intro- 
duced by a nasal and which may close in a nasal or a labial spirant. 

After the preceding stem classification we need comment on but a few 
more irregular phases. In Motlav nin we find an uncoordinate form; in 
may be abraded inu, nin may perhaps present the central nasal n, which 
should stand in the position of the parent of initial ng-m, or it may be some 
obscure duplication. Mota un, unuv, falls systematically into the scheme 
of stems ; but the Maligo ima seems impossible to place. The Marina forms 
suggest affiliation with the inum-stem ; the n-l mutation is well established 
over a wide area, but this is the only case in which it is found in Marina ; 
and the excision in o'omia is left unexplained. Tanna numi and Epi viuni 
are most readily disposed of as metathesis, of the types 2341 and 4321, 
respectively. Aneityum is very obscure, yet it does seem to preserve a trace 
of minu. 

There is, as we have seen, abundance of confusion in the island areas; 
but not so much as one confounded form comes into the slightest resem- 
blance with the Semitic st root. 

322. 

mirama-ni, merama, to be light, to shine; e-meromina, in the light (as 
opposed to abokas, the dark and gloomy underworld of Hades), 
in the world, the world. 



378 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Samoa: malama, the moon, a light, a lamp or torch, to be light; 
malamalama, to be light. Tonga: malama, brightness, to 
shine. Futuna: malama, the world, the universe, a lamp or 
light, brilliancy. Uvea : malama, a light, a lamp, to light up. 
Hawaii: malama, light; malamalama, a light, to shine. Sika- 
yana: malama, the moon. Manahiki: malamalama, light. 

Fotuna : marama, light ; mrama, the moon. Nuguria : marama, 
light. Maori: marama, the moon, light, to be light, to be 
bright. Tahiti: 7narawa, the moon ;maraOTara7«a, the light, to 
be light. Mangareva : marama, daylight, the moon. Rapanui : 
marama, brightness, light, day, to be bright; hakamarama, 
to shine. Rarotonga: marama, the moon, the light, bright, 
shining. Nukuoro: marama, the moon, bright. Nine: 

maama, light, to light up. Marquesas: maama, light of day; 
meawa, the moon. Aniwa: Mwra7nc, the months. The month 
sense is found in Tahiti, Marquesas, Rarotonga and Maori asso- 
ciated with the moon signification, and in Hawaii is specifically 
dissociated therefrom to characterize a solar month. 

Viti: malamalawa, the early part of the morning before daylight; 
rarama, light, rdmaka, to cast light upon ; rafnaka, shining from 
a distance. 

Sesake: marama, to be light. Gog: marmaran, to be lighted. 
Motlav: memreren, to become light. Volow: merer en, id. 

Tanna : mararen, light. Mota : maran, light, morning. Merlav : 
maran, light ; mamaraniga, lightsome. Bugotu, Nggela : marara, 
light. New Britain: malana, light. Kalil: mdlau, bright. 
Nengone: nerene, to shine; nereneni, to light. Aneityum: 
cf . alauma, to blaze. Bierian : mamama, light. 

Kayan : mala, a light, flame. 

Arabic: lama' a, to shine. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is malamang, as shown in malamalamangia. 
The duplication form shows this to be a composite of the two stems mala 
and mang; thus it must be kept apart from forms of lama, which in Poly- 
nesia has the lighting sense only as secondary to its primal signification 
of a torch. 

The presence of n in Efat£ mirama-ni and eromina serves to associate 
these forms with the malamang-stem. Sesake marama is plainly Polyne- 
sian malama. 

Beyond these two points we seem forever on the verge of establishing 
an identification and as steadily the light proves to be but will-o-the-wisp 
glimmer. In Viti malamalawa is almost Samoan malamalama; this would 
require an m-w mutation; but m is the least variable of Poljmesian conso- 
nants, our material not affording one instance of this hypothetical mutation ; 
the nearest is m-v in the solitary instance of ma'i (323) sick Nggela vahagi. 
The other Viti examples stem in lama, and that is contraindicated. 

The nearest approach to malama in the doubtful Melanesia is New Britain 
(not specified) malana; on the m-n mutation see note 312. The marara of 
Bugotu and Nggela requires an m-r mutation, for which we find no support. 
In the New Hebrides we find various phases of a stem which at its simplest 



DATA AND NOTES. 379 

is found as inaran in Mota and Merlav. It is quite plain that if maran is 
to be associated with malamang at all, it can only be with the composition 
element mala; this maran may be recognized in New Britain malana in its 
full strength and, after abrasion, as a subduplication form in marara. From 
maran the duplication of mar gives us Gog marmaran, yet side by side with 
this we find in Merlav mamaraniga a duplication of ma and not mar. Tanna 
mararen and Volow mereren require a peculiar duplication of ran. Motlav 
memreren joins to this anomalous duplication of ran an equally irregular 
duplication of ma. Kalil mdlau may derive from the abraded form of 
maran. Nengone nerene, if we may accept the initial m-n mutation, brings 
us to a yet more archaic form of maran as an open stem marane, and that 
the ne is radical is made manifest by the subduplicated nereneni. 

Kisa mala is in kinship with this maran. 

The Semitic Im' skeleton is alien. 

323- 

misaki, masaki, to be sick, to be ill, to have fever ; misaki, misakia, sickness. 

Futuna: masaki, sick, illness. Tonga: maliaki, id.; m,ahamahaki, 
feeble. Nine: wa/jaH, very great. Uvea: ma/zafet, sick, ill. 
Maori: mahaki, a cutaneous disease. Marquesas: maki, a 
wound. Rapanui: mafei, a wound, plague. Mangaia : mafei, 
sick, sickness. Mangareva, Nuguria, Paumotu: maki, sick, 
ill. Fotuna: maki, makinga, ill. Samoa: ma'i, sickness, 
to be ill; very. Tahiti: mai, disease. Hawaii: mai, sickness in 
general. Rapanui: mai, to be ill; a boil. 

Viti: mathake, specifically aphthae or thrush. 

Malekula Pangkumu: mesek, sick, sickness. Epi: msaki, miei, id. 
King: miseit, sick. Saa: matai, id. Nggela: vahagi, id. 
New Britain: maki, makmak, matmat, id. Baravon: mail, id. 
Aneityum : mehe, sick ; masaki, leprosy. Mota : masag, ague. 

Ilocan: masaquit, sick. Silong: makit, id. Kisa: m,aki, dead. 
Malay: sakit, sick. 

Arabic : s'aka', to afflict one with a disease ; ^'afea/, disease imas^kwuiw' , 
afflicted with a disease. 

In Poljmesia the line of demarcation between masaki and maki is the 
classic division between the Proto-Samoan and the Tongafiti migrations, 
masaki pertaining to the older stock. That Samoa has the Tongafiti form 
need cause no surprise, for in Samoa the Proto-Samoans were held under 
Tongafiti subjugation vmtil the historic battle of Matamatame. Similarly 
the presence of Proto-Samoan masaki in the Maori is but one more incident 
of that direct migration from Nuclear Polynesia to New Zealand which we 
have already isolated, and this reading is corroborated by the special use 
of mahaki as the name of one disease in particvdar. We observe a like 
particularization in Rapanui, Viti, Aneityum, and Mota. 

In Nine the expletive mahaki finds its parallel in Samoa in the same use 
of ma'i. "A plague on both your houses." 

Efate preserves the true masaki form, and Epi (Bierian) msaki is but 
slightly altered therefrom. Nggela vahagi would be reducible to masaki b}?^ 



380 THE) POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

applying an m-v mutation. Mota masag and Malekula Pangkumu mesek 
are abraded forms. Aneityummefeeisafurtherabrasionof me^yefe. Saadrops 
all its k's; therefore we can restore matai to mataki,hut we have no instance 
of s-t mutation in that language and perforce must deny ourselves this 
identification. King miseit needs but the restoration of k to come into 
agreement with Indonesian forms which have final t, Ilocan masaquit and 
Malay sakit. Baravon mail by the same restoration comes into agreement 
with Silong makit of the Tongafiti stem. Furthermore New Britain maki 
is the same as Kisa maki. These three forms may be ascribed to Post- 
Polynesian intercourse with Indonesia. 

In form masaki sick is a conditional and implies a primal noun saki illness. 
This saki is found perhaps in Maori hakihaki the itch, and then not in quite 
the signification demanded ; again in the Malay with the same falling short 
in sense. Thus we see that, while the Arabic with its s'akat and mas'kuww' 
offers a specious resemblance, it is after all a resemblance to something 
which does not really esdst in our island languages. 

324- 
mita, meta, bakamita, to look at, to watch, to observ^e, to view ; mita na, 
the eye, the beginning, a bud or shoot, a window or door or 
other opening. 

Samoa : mata, matamata, to look at, to see, to view ; mata, the eye, 
the face, the point, the edge, a mesh, the source or origin. 
Fakaafo, Moiki: mata, the eye. Nukuoro: mata, the eye; 
viatakite, soothsayer; mata, the point; matakapupu, blunt; 
m.atapunou, blunt; mata, the face, looks; matapaupau, ugly; 
matatenua, pretty; mata, any small thing; mataua, raindrops. 
Tonga: mata, to be seen; mamata, to see; mata, the eye, the 
face, the edge, a mesh. Futuna: mata, the eye, the face, the 
point of a lance ; mamata, matamata, to see, to look at, to view. 
Niue: mata, mamata, to look at; mata, the eye, the face, an 
edge, a blade, a point of land. Uvea: mata, the eye, the 
face, a point; viata, matamata, to look like. Nuguria: mata, 
the face, to see; anomota, the eye. Maori: mata, the eye, the 
face, the edge, the point, the mesh; matamata, the point, 
extremity, source, a headland. Manahiki: mata, the eye. 
Tahiti : mata, the eye, the face, the beginning, the edge. Raro- 
tonga: mata, the eye, the face, the beginning. Marquesas: 
mata, the eye, the face. Mangareva : rnata, the eye, physiog- 
nomy, the front, the point. Paumotu: viata, the appearance 
of a person. Rapanui: mata, the eye, face, visage, aspect. 
Tongarewa : mata, the eye ; matamata, beads. Fotuna, Aniwa 
foimata, the eyes. Sikayana: karimata, the eye; lofimata, 
the face. Hawaii: maka, the eye, the face, the point, the 
edge, a bud. 

Viti: mata, the eye, the face, the front, the point, the source, the 
origin. Rotuma: maf, the face; viafa, eye. 

Vaturanga, Pala, Kiriwina, Nggela : mata, the face. New Georgia : 
mata, isumata, the face. Southeast Bpi, Bierian, Sesake, 



DATA AND NOTES. 381 

Malekula, Arag, Maewo, Malo, Redscar Bay, Motu, Sinaugoro, 
Rubi, Mugula, Sariba, Tubetube, Misima, Nada, Murua, Dobu, 
Awalama, Taupota, Wedau, Galavi, Boniki, Mukawa, Kwagila, 
Kubiri, Raqa, Kiviri, Oiun, Port Moresby, Buka, Lambell, 
King, Lamassa, Moanus, New Ireland (Port Praslin), New 
Britain, Duke of York, Solomon Islands : mata, the eye. Suau, 
Tavara : mata, the eye, face. Lo : mata, a spear. Norbarbar : 
matah, id. Maewo: m.ataso,i6.. Merlav: m,atas,\6.. Mota: 
m,ata, the eye; m,atag, to see; m,atarag, to gaze at. Motlav: 
mata, na-mtege, the eye. Laur : m^ata, the eye ; m,at mata, the 
face. Baravon: maM, the eye. Volow: mato, the eye; m,et, 
to see. Merlav: mete, eye; mata, to see. New Ireland 
(Carteret Harbor) : matak, the eye. Nggao : matata, the face. 
Brumer Islands : matada, the eye. Brierly Island : matara, id. 
Vuras: m,atai, id. Gog: mate, eye; matarag, to gaze at. 

Motlav, Vuras, Lakon : maie, eye. Kiriwina: wa;fi, id. lai: 
emakang,eje; nimakan, the iace. Uni, Pokau, Doura, Kabadi : 
m,aka, the eye. Aneityum: nes-ngani-m-tan, ni-mtan, id. 

Panaieti : matan, id. Deni : maku, the face. New Ireland : 
wa/a, the eye. Tagula,: mar a, id. Pak: ma'an, id. Roro: 
maha, id. Mekeo: ma' a, the eye, face. Ulawa: waa, the 
face. Fagani, San Cristoval, Malanta : ma, the face. Hula, 
Keapara, Galoma: ma, the eye. Ambrym: meta, the eye. 
Santo: metana, id. Malekula: metan, id. Mosin: mete, id. 
Vuras, Mosin: mete, eye; meteg, to see. Alo Teqel: me'e, 
me'egi, the eye. Pak: me'ei, id. Duba: mat, id. Gog: 
met, id. Volow : wei, to see. I/ifu: wefe, the eye. Maewo: 
ete,tosee. Norbarbar: et,\d. Tanna: nanime,nugane-m,ti{n), 
the eye; nupugane-mti, the face. Bromanga: nipmi, ni- 
mtu(m), id. Marina: nata, id. Baki: mira, eye, face. 

Tubetube: mam, the face; manipo, theeje. Panaieti, Dobu : 
manini, the iace. Misima: maneni, id. Murua, Kubiri, magi, 
id. Nada, Kiriwina: migi, id. Galavi, Boniki: mag'ig'i, id. 

Kayan, Sulu, Savu, Ilocan, Tagalog, Pampangas, Bouton, Sanguir, 
Liang, Wahai, Baju, Togean Islands, Salayer, Menado, Bolang- 
hitam, Morella, Lariko, Saparua, Caimarian: mata, the eye. 
Malay: mata, the eye, the blade, the edge, the mesh, the source, 
the origin. Macassar: mata, the point, a mesh, a spring, the 
source. Awaiya : mata mo, the eye. Nicobar Central : matsha, 
the face. Matabello: matada, the eye. Silong: matat, id. 
Ahtiago Alfuros: matara, id. Wahai: matalalin, the face. 
Gah: matomwa, the eye. Teluti : matoco/o, id . Batumerah: 
matava, id. Baliyon: moio/i, id. Ahtiago: maf aw, id. Dyak: 
maten, id. Teor: matin, id.; matinotin, the face. Kar 
Nicobar: mcif, the eye. Kisa : wafean, id. Tagalog: mMc/ia, 
the face. Java: muka, id. Ilocan: muguing, id. Madura: 
mua, id. Mysot: mut morolu, the eye. Malagasy: maso, 
the eye. 

Arabic: 'ana, to emanate (water), to see, to look at. 



382 



THE POIvYNBSIAN WANDBRINGS. 



There is a wide range of significations in this stem. It will serve to 
express an opening as small as the mesh of a net or as large as the door of a 
house; it will serve to designate globular objects as large as the eye or as 
small as the bud on a twig or the drop of rain, and designating a pointed 
object it answers with equal facility for the sharpened tip of a lance or the 
acres of a headland ; it describes as well the edge of a paddle or the source 
from which a thing originates. As the islanders find no need to distinguish 
these and yet other senses no obligation rests upon us to seek to establish 
an artificial classification. We shall, therefore, in these notes consider only 
the varieties of form. 

In PoljTiesia the only variants are Hawaii maka, a modern kappation, 
and Rotuma mafa under the influence of a local idiosyncrasy. 

It will be found making for greater simplicity to list the Melanesian forms 
and the Indonesian irregularities. 



mata. 


Vaturanga, Nggela, New 


matara. 


. Brierly Island; Ahtiago 




Georgia, Bierian, Se- 




AJfuros. 




sake, Malekula, Maewo, 


matai. 


Vuras. 




Malo, Arag, Buka, 


mat. 


Omba; KarNicobar. 




Lambell, King, La- 


mala. 


New Ireland. 




massa, Laur, Moanus, 


ma'an. 


Pak. 




New Ireland (Carteret 


maa. 


Ulawa. 




Harbor, Port Praslin), 


ma. 


Fagani, San Cristoval, 




New Britain, Baravon, 




Malanta. 




Duke of York, Solomon 


mate. 


Gog, Motlav, Vuras, Lakon. 




Islands, New Guinea 


meta. 


Efate, Ambrym, Santo, 




(Port Moresby, Redscar 




Malekula. 




Bay), Lo, Mota, Mot- 


mita. 


Efate. 




lav, Merlav. 


mete. 


Mosin, Vuras, Merlav. 


matah. 


Norbarbar. 


me'e. 


Alo Teqel, Pak. 


matas. 


Merlav. 


met. 


Gog, Volow. 


mataso. 


Maewo. 


mek. 


Lifu. 


matak. 


New Ireland (Carteret 


mt. 


Aneityum, Tanna, Ero- 




Harbor) . 




manga, Motlav. 


matata. 


Nggao; Silong. 


ete. 


Maewo. 


matada. 


Brumer Islands ; Matabello. 


et. 


Norbarbar. 



This is a startling picture of degradation, yet at no point may we halt 
for any non plus ultra check to the dilapidation, for each step represents a 
sufficient transition phase between that which has gone before and that 
which is to come. Deni maku might suggest kappation, but even then the 
final u remains out of accord. lai emakang and nimakan are clearly kappa- 
tion forms. In Tanna nanime and Eromanga nipmi it is possible that mi 
or me represents a yet more degraded phase than appears in Fagani, San 
Cristoval, and Malanta ina. Baki inira and New Ireland viala are to be 
grouped in development plane, but we have no evidence to establish their 
connection with mata. 

In Indonesia mata has equal predominance, but there are many variants. 
Of these, four are to be found in Melanesia : matada, matata, matara and mat. 
Many of these Indonesian variants are composites. The principal stem 



DATA AND NOTES. 383 

diversity is in the occurrence of it-forms in muka, mucha, mugiiing, mua, 
and mut, this deviation not being found in the Pacific areas. 
^The^Semitic 'ana resembles mata only in the possession of two a's, not 
at all a basis of association. 

325- 
mot, motu, island, place, district; lit., that which is broken off. 

Samoa; motu, an islet, a district; motu, to be broken off, snapped 
asunder, severed. Tonga: motu, an island. Futuna: motu, 
an islet. Niue: motii, land, island, a country, (?) a clump of 
forest. Uvea: motu, an island; m,otu, to cut off. Nuguria: 
motu, an island, to break. Maori: motu, anything isolated, 
as an island, a clump of trees. Tahiti: motu, a low islet. 
Marquesas: motu, an island. Mangareva: motu, an elevated 
island. Rapanui: motu, an island, to cut, to break. Raro- 
tonga : motu, an island, a grove. Paumotu : motu-puhere, an 
island. Fotuna: tanga-motu, forest; motu tangata, multitude. 
Viti: Moturiki, name of an islet near Ovalau. 

Mota : motumotu, an island ; mot, bush, uncleared ground, land grown 
over with trees; motu, to break, as string; mot, to cut, to break, 
to stop short off. Duke of York: viutamuta, crumbs. 
Malay: putus, to break. Malagasy: maitu, broken asunder, 

I ; snapped ; maituitu, broken in pieces ; utusana, being cut, broken, 
r*^' snapped. 

Arabic: makta', a place. (Deriving this from kata'a, to cutoff, Dr. 
MacDonald provides a common source for motu and koto-fi) . 

The Proto-Samoan stem is motus. 

The island sense is particularly well marked in Polynesia, and the forest 
sense is closely parallel. In Niue I have felt it right to query the forest 
sense for the reason that it does not appear in the vocabulary, though it is 
clearly inferential from PercySmith's sketch map of the island. In Viti the 
word is found in one place name, Moturiki or little island, yet it is clearly 
established since this is the only interpretation that the word can have. In 
Melanesia it has not been recorded save in Efate and Mota. The Duke 
of York mutamuta may be related, but it lacks confirmatory support. 

The Indonesian is uncertain. The Malay requires evidence to uphold the 
m-p mutation. In the Malagasy it is quite unlikely that the composite 
ma-itu can have anything to do with motu, and utusana calls for an explana- 
tion of the abrasion of m- radical. 

In the Semitic if makta' stems in a kt' root it can have no relation with 
motus. 

326. 
mu, fu, to coo as a dove. 

Samoa: mui, to murmur; mumii, words spoken in private conver- 
sation; mumu, to be in swarms; langomumu, langofufu, the 
carpenter bee; muna, to grumble; musumusu, to whisper. 
Tonga : muhu, the sound as of persons talking together ; muhu- 
muhu, to speak quietly together; mumu, to collect together; 
muna, to talk nonsense ; langomu, a large fly. Futuna : mui, 
to collect together; muna, to speak, to murmur; musu, to 



384 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

whisper. Niue : mumu, to crowd, to make a noise ; langofufu, 
the carpenter wasp. Uvea: munamuna, to murmur. Maori: 
mu, a gentle noise; mumu, to murmur, to hum; muna, to tell 
privately. Tahiti: mu, a buzz; mumu, to make a confused 
noise, as a number of persons talking together; langomumu, 
the carpenter bee; omuhumuhzi, to whisper to one's discredit. 
Hawaii: mumu, to hum. Mangaia : mzt, to sigh. Marquesas: 
mumu, a confused noise. Mangareva : amui, to assemble, as 
flies. Paumotu: mzttemWizt, a dull confused noise ; muhimuhi, 
to murmur. Fotuna : m,u, to buzz ; mumu, to whisper. Moiki : 
m,una, to speak, to say. Nukuoro : fatumuna, to lie ; munaputonu, 
true; silengamuna, to interpret. Rapanui: huhu, buzzing. 
Viti : mumu, to go in troops or swarms. 

Motu: m,u, to coo. Loyalty Islands: mum,u, the pitcher wasp. 
Aneityum : ilmu, to low (as cattle) ; ilmurilmu, to mumble. 
New Britain : mukumuku, to whisper. Mota : m.um, to make 
an indistinct hum. 
Nicobar Central : m,umu, a dove. Malagasy : moimoy, a low mur- 
mur, a hum ; monom,onona, a grumbling. 
Hebrew: hamah, to coo, to hum (as a multitude). Arabic: 
hamhamah, to murmur. 
I have here collected the principal stems having m?t-initial for purposes 
of comparison. Connected with the mu of cooing there is a mu in Polynesia 
and beyond, and it is with this that we shall concern ourselves. In Samoa 
langomumu and langofufu it shows the same alternation as in Bfate m.u, fu. 
This fu is found but once more, Niue langofufu. Tonga exhibits this ele- 
mental mu only in the composite langomu. In Futuna this mu is absent ; 
for rnui, which is the same in form as Samoa mui to murmur, is here formed 
upon that mu to be a crowd which is found in Samoa, Tonga, and Niue 
mumu, and which is probably the same in Mangareva amui. In Niue mumu 
fails to observe the distinction between mu to buzz and mu to be a crowd. 
Fotvma, Maori, Tahiti, Marquesas and Hawaii have preserved this mu, and 
generally without duplication. 

Viti m,umu is the mzi to be a crowd. 

Motu has the same mu of sormd, Aneityum ilmurilmu seems to be some 
sort of a mw-composite, Mota m,utn is readily seen to be mu reduplicated 
and then abraded. 

Nicobar mumu a dove may quite safely be identified with this mu of 
sound. But in the Malagasy moimoy, although the sense is satisfactory, 
the vowel anomaly is too great to be overcome ; and the monomonona could 
be associated only with m,una. 

The Semitic involves elements not present in our mu; in fact the only 
point of form likeness is the m, and that is insufficient. 

327- 
muri na, the after part of a thing. 

Samoa, Futuna: muli, the end, hind part, bottom, rump, to follow 
after. Uvea : muli, the end, the last, to follow. Nukuoro : 
m,uli, after, behind, in future; mule, slow. Nuguria: muri, 
aft. Rapanui: muri, the stem; * muri, ki muri, afterward, 



DATA AND NOTES. 385 

behind. Maori: muri, the rear, hind part, afterward. Tahiti: 
muri, behind, afterward. Raro tonga: muri, behind, in the 
rear of, after. Mangareva : muri, behind, after. Paumotu : 
muri, the rear, behind, after. Bukabuka : tainamuri, younger. 
Fotuna: no-muri, to follow; muri, behind. Aniwa: wamuri, 
behind, after. Tonga: mui, the tail (of a bird), the end, hind 
part, to follow. Niue: mui, the last, to follow; muimui, the 
stern, hind part ; muli, to follow. Marquesas : mui, after, behind. 
Viti: muria, to follow, to go behind. 

Nggela: m,uri, behind; tumuri, to follow. Motu: murimtiri, out- 
side; muritai, the younger. Duke of York: m-urimuri, to 
follow; murumuru, to be behind. Kabakada: muru, back; 
m,ule, again, away. Baravon: m,uru, m,urmur, the last. New 
Britain : mulumulu, to follow after. Pala : m,iir, id. 
Matu: muli, to return. Pampangas: mulin, the stem. Macassar: 
kamudi, rudder, helm. Malay: burit, the ftmdament; buritau, 
the back, hind part, stern ; kamudi, rudder. Tagalog : huli, the 
stern. Visayas : uling, id. Malagasy : vudi, the posteriors, stern. 
Arabic: 'ah'h'ara, to be behind; mouh'ir, stern, hind part; 'eh'ir, 
end. 
Efat6 m,uri is in exact accord with the Polynesian m,uli, muri, mui. The 
excision of the I in Tonga and Niue is not a regular mutation in those lan- 
guages, yet there are other instances. The fact that Niue has both muli 
and mui leads to the recognition of an attempt, not yet completed when 
the language was set by reduction to writing, to differentiate muli to follow 
and mui last. In Bukabuka tainamuri we can recognize tei (47) younger 
brother ; and in Motu the same elements in a different order, this being still 
one more instance of the concord of that Torres Straits station with the 
extreme east of Polynesia. Nukuoro mule slow is not a muli form ; it does 
not appear in Samoa, a rare instance of the failure to find in the most 
modern Samoan the source of Nukuoro vocables, but in Niue mule a long 
time, the source is plain. Since we know Niue to have been imder direct 
obligations to Samoa we may regard Niue and Nukuoro as preserving a 
word which in Samoa went into disuse before record was made of the 
language. 

In Melanesia the muri identifications are few and widely scattered. The 
Duke of York muri and muru forms afford a transition phase by which we 
are enabled to accept muru despite the vowel modification, and to localize 
it in the eastern gateway and adjacent New Guinea. The Kabakada 7nule 
has no such signification as would serve to establish its affinity with the 
Nukuoro-Niue mule just discussed, or with muli. 

In Indonesia we encounter great variety of consonant mutation with 
absolute fixity of the u-i vowels. Pampangas mulin the stem is in form 
and in sense a perfect identification, after noting the ephelkustic n of this 
area. Matu muli to return is exact in form, but the sense is not so satis- 
factory. For / we have mutations to r and d; the former so common as 
not to need discussion, the latter found in Samoa and Sikayana of the 
Polynesian group and existing in a few traces {l-t, l-nd, l-j) in Melanesia. 
For m we have mutations to h, to v, to b, and to extinction. Not one of 



386 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

these occurs in Melanesia save m-v in the sohtary instance of ma'i (323) 
sick Nggela vahagi. In Polynesia none is represented, save as it may be 
considered to exist in the rare m-p exhibited in Samoa tumua't the crown 
of the head Maori tumuaki and tupuaki Tahiti and Paumotu tupuaki. 
Acceptance of these forms, therefore, should be postponed. 

The Arabic moiih'ir is clearly a secondary form from stem 'hr, which 
shows no kinship with any form in which inuli appears. 

328. 
namu, mamamami, the mosquito. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Sikayana, Nuguria, Nukuoro, 
Mangaia, Paumotu: namu, the mosquito. Maori: namu, the 
sand fly; wamMwaTOif, a blistering plaster. Marquesas: namu, 
a reddish gnat. Tahiti: wam«, ra7»tt, the mosquito. Fotuna: 
namo, id. 

Viti: namu, the mosquito. Rotuma: rom, id. 

Arag, Maewo, Duke of York, Mota, Nifilole, Fagani, Vaturanga, 
Nggela, Guadalcanar : namu, mosquito. Savo: naimmamu, id. 
Marina: natnugi, id. Lakon: namug, id. Bugotu, Buka: 
gnamu, id. Motu, Raqa, Wango: namo, id. Mukawa: 

namonamo, the fly. Galavi, Boniki: namonamo, the fly; 

namokiri, mosquito. Kubiri: nanamo, mosquito. Kiviri: 
nanam, id. Mekeo: anguma, the fly. Roro: aumaha, id. 
Merlav, Mota, Gog, Lo, Vuras, Mosin: nam, mosquito. Sinau- 
goro, Hula, Keapara, Galoma, Rubi: neino, id. Dobu: nema, id. 
Sariba: nimai, id. Eariwina: nim, id. Norbarbar, Pak, 
Motlav, Volow: wem, id. Sasar: worn, id. Malekula Uripiv : 
num, id. Moanus: «yaw, id. Aaeityiim: inyum, id. Alo 
Teqel: torn, id. Tangoan Santo: mo^e, id. Malo: mohe, id. 
Panaieti: gumu, id. Tanna: kumug, id. Misima: kimu, id. 
Taupota: himokini, id. Awalama: himoiodi, id. Nada: 
simunika, id. Murua: sumoniku, id. W&dan: imokini, id. 
Tavara: moeoti, id. 

Malay, Bugi: naviok, mosquito. Dyak: njam ok, id. Macassar: 
njamo, lamti, id. Kayan: hamok, id. Pampangas: yamuc, id. 
Malagasy: 7nuka, id. 

Arabic: namus, mosquito. 

It is very difficult to understand the second Efate form viamamami. It 
does not appear in its proper place in the dictionary nor are any of its parts 
identifiable in the material which Dr. Macdonald affords. It is quite pos- 
sible that it would not have found entry under namu as an alternative had 
not omr author misread his Samoan and entered the first of his affinities as 
"Sa. mamu." There is no such word in Samoa; the mosquito there, as 
generally, is namu. The only variants in Polynesia are Fotuna namo, a 
very slight change and possibly a fault of dulness of ear on the part of the 
recorder in catching the light sound of the unaccented final syllable ; and 
Rotuma rom. In the latter the n-r mutation is by no means uncommon 
in Polynesia, is well represented in our Melanesian material; and rom, in 
fact, reappears as Tahiti ramu. 



DATA AND NOTES. 387 

In Motu and Wango we find a recurrence of the namo already noted in 
Fotuna. Marina gi and Lakon g are recognized as noun-formative termi- 
nations; the pecuUar strengthening of the initial in Bugotu and Buka is 
local to the Solomon Islands. With these notes we shall have no difficulty 
in following through Melanesia a sequence of namu-nam-nem-nom-num. 
The Moanus njdm, as in several other vocables noted from that first station 
of the eastern gateway, may be assigned to Post- Polynesian influence from 
Indonesia, noting particularly Dyak njamok and Macassar njavio ; still there 
is Aneityum inyum of probably equivalent phonetic value and I can not 
trace Dyak raids so far to the south. In Alo Teqel the n-t mutation is a 
local idiosyncrasy. 

In Indonesia we have no difficulty in identifying the Malay, Bugi, Dyak, 
and Macassar forms, but beyond that we shall find complications. Kayan 
hainok, Pampangas yamuc seem to be in accord with Tanna kumug. Mala- 
gasy OTMfea,Tangoan Santo mo^g, and Malo mohe seem to form another group. 
The relation between the two groups seems to depend upon the assumption 
or loss of the prior syllable. Assuming a common stem in mok I have 
searched the Pacific material for some variant of that stem used in designa- 
tion of an insect or other flying animal, but with no success. While I have 
twice grouped Melanesia with Indonesia in these obscurities it has been 
solely on the score of form resemblance ; it will not have escaped notice that 
these are New Hebridean languages found much farther south than I have 
been ready to admit within the sphere of Dyak raiders. 

Now what is the animal to which the namu designation pertains? 

The mosquito and none other, say all our authorities save the Maori and 
the Marquesans, to whom it represents the sandfly and the gnat respec- 
tively. But is the mosquito indigenous to this wide area of the Malay seas 
and the Pacific? 

This is a question for the biologist with his story of the migration of 
species. In certain parts of Polynesia the mosquito was long unknown. 
Read the historical record for Hawaii as set down by Prof. William DeWitt 
Alexander in ' 'The Brief History of the Hawaiian People " page 195 : "Dur- 
ing this year (1826) mosquitos, hitherto unknown in the islands, were intro- 
duced at I^ahaina by the ship Wellington from San Bias, Mexico." Seventy 
years later on the neighboring island of Hawaii I found them spread from 
the port of Hilo no greater distance than to Olaa, less than a score of miles. 
In Samoa we may not execrate the ship that brought the pest, but we have 
equally valid record of the introduction of this and yet another insect. In 
the manuscript of my ' 'Samoa o le Vavau, " awaiting its due season, I have 
preserved the tale of the king's daughter of Manu'a who stood on the shore 
gazing out into the east and into the face of her hero coming over the 
unknown seas to greet her. "I'll come back and marry you," he said, 
"and meanwhile keep my treasure safe against my return, but on no account 
open it." He gave her a tube of two joints of bamboo with their inter- 
vening septum and with the open ends of each cavity plugged. Pandora 
of the South Sea, from one end flew a swarm of flies, from the other a mist 
of mosquitos, and her hero never did come back. 

It may be objected that these migrations could never have preserved the 
name when they no longer had reason to remember it in new lands whither 



388 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

the mosquito had not penetrated. Then how shall the student of the Viti 
account for the possession there of karavau as a name for cattle in a land 
which knew no horned beasts until the missionaries came ? It seems to be 
the carabao of the Philippines. Or how account for ngeli, the Viti name 
for monkey, when the nearest quadrumane is no nearer than Indonesia? 

329- 

nate, nase, ate, atse, the banana, the plantain (plant and fruit). 

Samoa, Futuna, Nine : futi, the banana. Tonga : fuji, the generic 
term for all bananas. Fotuna: vuji, the banana. Moiki, 
Nuguria, Nukuoro : huti, id. Maori: cLhutiwai, a plant name 
(Accena sanguis orba) . Aniwa: hutshi, the banana. Fila: 
butsh. 

Viti: vundi, banana, plantain. 

The following words all signify banana : 

Fagani : ftiki. Vaturanga, Nggela, Bugotu : vundi. Saa, Bululaha, 
Ulawa: huti. Wango: hugi. Maewo: undi. Sesake: 
andi. Baravon : vundu. Duke of York : wundu. Kalil : 
'huddu. Pala, Namatandi: kudu. Lambell: 'hun. Laur: 
hun. King : wun. Lamassa : wun. New Ireland (Carteret 
Harbor) : un. Bpi, Bierian : vihi. Paama : ahisi. Malekula : 
na-vis. Malekula Uripiv: na-vits. Malekula Pangkumu: 
ne-vij. Arag: ihi. Malekula: abus. Eromanga: no-bos. 
Moanus: mbur. Ambrym, Aneityum: nohos. Dobu: udi. 
Kiriwina: usi. Sariba: udu. 

Ceram, Ahtiago: phitim. Matabello: phudi. Ceram: fudi. Gah: 
fudia. Tobo: fild. Massaratty: fuati. Mayapo: fuat. 
Malagasy: hutsi, untsi. Timor: hudi. Caimarian: u'ki. 
Batak: unchi. Macassar: unti. Sambawa: punti. Panga- 
sinan: ponti. Sanguir: busa. Malay: pisang. 

Arabic: muz', banana. Amharic: muz, id. 

In Pol3Tiesia there are many names for banana and plantain and futi is 
the least usual ; but its existence is well established, and Tonga fuji marks 
it as ancient, for generic terms are imperfectly developed in the intellectual 
plane of our islanders. Incidentally to the mention of Tonga fuji I must 
note that Codrington (Melanesian Languages, 55) has cited it incorrectly as 
fugi and treats the g as ak derivative ; thereby he has unfortunately gone 
astray in so much of his discussion as is based thereon, for t-j is the common 
Tongan mutation before e and * (17 Journal of the Polynesian Society, 212). 

Before taking up the Melanesian forms I cite, on the authority of Mr. 
Christian, these Micronesian affinities : Ponape 'ut; Kusaie, Mortlocks, 'us; 
Uluthi, ut; Palawat, Uleai, Lamotrek, Satawal, uis. 

Nowhere in Melanesia do we find exactly the primal form futi. The 
nearest approximation is huti of Saa, Bululaha, and Ulawa. The mutation 
t-g is found only in this one instance in Wango, but t-k is not only well 
represented in our Melanesian material but is a presently active principle 
in Hawaii and Samoa ; therefore we may associate huti, hugi, and huki as 



DATA AND NOTEJS. 389 

futi forms. The vundi of Vaturanga, Nggela, and Bugotu, the same as Viti, 
is also futi. We have, therefore, a perfect identification of futi in the 
Solomon Islands, a series of crop colonies on the Samoa track. Baravon 
vundu is easily associable with vundi and therefore with futi, and Kalil 
'huddu represents the same secondary stem with the d not reinforced. I 
have already commented on the borrowing at second hand of a reinforced 
consonant by speakers to whom a double consonant was objectionable and 
who, in their ignorance of the primal form, have ignorantly retained the 
reinforcement and have dropped the radical. Thus from vundu of Baravon 
and wundu of the Duke of York we pass to the 'hiin of Lambell, the hun 
of Laur, the wun of Lamassa, and the un of Carteret Harbor in the Lamassa 
region of New Ireland. These form a second, a more remote, stage on the 
Samoa track; they lie within the eastern gateway. 

We are next to examine a group of forms having a for the earlier vowel, 
a for u. These have all lost the initial consonant. Our studies in the east- 
ern gateway have shown us the vanishing of v in progressive stages. Here 
we have no record of progress in the dilapidation, yet we may accept the 
result and view this group as representing an original fati variant of futi. 
We find this in Efat6 ate, Sesake andi; and Maewo undi may be taken as 
retaining somewhat of the transition phase which links fati and futi. Look- 
ing back at Efate we find dtse. This is no unusual ^variant. In Polynesia 
it is regular in Niue and Tongarewa; in this stem we find a blunter form 
of it in Aniwa hutshi and Fila butsh. Then by reduction of the doubled 
consonant and selection of the wrong member we come to dse. 

We next find a group in which primal futi has become fiti. We do not 
find fiti itself any more than we found fati. But its immediately secondary 
phase is found in Malekula Pangkumu ne-vij and Uripiv na-vits. From 
na-vits we pass as before to na-vis, and thence it is a normal step in one 
direction to vihi which we find in Bierian of Epi, in the other to hisi which 
is preserved in Paama ahisi. Through vihi we are led simply to Arag ihi. 

Paama ahisi has shown us a futi derivative assuming a prefixed a. We 
have already become acquainted with the change of t to s. Therefore we 
need have no hesitation in accepting Malekula abus as a futi derivative; 
still less in joining therewith Eromanga no-bos, for its no- is readily seen 
to be the Melanesian n-article chameleon-colored by the nearest radical 
vowel. Twice already have we seen the primal / develop into h; therefore 
the no-hos of Ambrym and Aneityum takes its place as a futi derivative. 
Moanus mbUr is the only form which for the present seems irreducible. 

We find somewhat parallel variations in Indonesia. Primal futi is repre- 
sented immediately by Ceram fudi, Matabello phiidi, Gah fiidia, Timor hudi, 
Malagasy hutsi, Tobo fiid, Caimarian u'ki, Malagasy untsi, Batak unchi, 
Macassar unti, Sambawa punti, Pangasinan ponti. Sanguir busa introduces 
the J- which we have twice already developed. Massaratty fuati, Mayapo 
fuat may represent the transition phase of futi to fati. The fiti form is 
seen in Ceram and Ahtiago phitim, and with the .f-change may pass into 
Malay pisang. 

We have passed in review many variants of the initial consonant of futi, 
V, p, b, w, h, and its complete vanishing. Not one case suggests the m 
which this Semitic requires to bring it into kinship. 



390 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

330. 
niu, the coconut palm. 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Tahiti, Hawaii, Rarotonga, 
Manahiki, Tongarewa, Paumotu, Rapanui, Fotuna, Nukuoro, 
Nuguria, Moiki: niu, coconut. Mangareva: niu, the coconut 
palm when young, ripening into nikau. Maori : niu, a means 
of divination by sticks; nikau, a palm. Marquesas: niu, a 
top, a species of coconut. Mangaia: nu, the coconut palm. 

Viti : niu, the coconut palm. Rotuma : niu, id. 

Sesake, Epi, Arag, Ulawa, Wango, Fagani, Saa, Bululaha, Vaturanga, 
Nggela, Bugotu, Motu, Kabadi, Pokau, Doura, Sinaugoro, Hula, 
Keapara, Galoma, Mugula, Suau, Sariba, Tubetube, Panaieti, 
Nada, Dobu, Port Moresby, Moanus, Solomon Islands, Lifu: 
WW, the coconut. Misima: mte, id. Buka:«eM, id. Alite: 
liu, id. Mukawa: niura, id. Awalama, Taupota : neur a, id. 
Kwagila: diura, id. Kubiri, Kiviri: rura, id. Nengone, 
Nifilole: nu, id. Kiriwina: nuia, luia, id. New Caledonia : 
ni, id. 

Malagasy: wi/m, the coconut. Tlyak.: nju, id. Salibabo : •nyw, id. 
Salayer: nyorah, id. Malay: nior, id. Liang: nier, id. Gah: 
niHla, id. Bicol: niyog, id. Cajeli, Mayapo, Massaratty, 
Amblaw: niwi, id. Morella: niwil, id. Lariko: nimil, id. 
Batumerah, Caimarian : niweli, id. Awaiya : liweli, id. Teluti : 
nuelo, id. Wahai: luen, id. Java: nu, id. Sulu: nui, id. 
Ahtiago: nuim, id. Tobo: nua, id. Malay: nur, id. 

Arabic: nah'lu, nah'ilu, palms (general and collective respectively). 

In Polynesia the only form variant is Mangaia nu, an unusual loss and 
to be met with again only in Nengone and Nifilole and in a part of Indonesia. 
In the Marquesas niu is not the usual name of the coconut, but it does 
occur and is recorded by Bishop Dordillon. The sense of top lies in the 
fact that the bud end of a coconut shell is used for spinning, both in the 
sport of children and as a means of applying to island life the practical side 
of the doctrine of chances. Thus it may be that in New Zealand, in lati- 
tudes higher than are grateful to the coconut, the divination sense has per- 
sisted even to different implements whereby the arbitrament of fate may 
be declared. 

In Melanesia there is no deviation from sense and very few instances of 
form variation. Buka neu is a very slight variant. In Alite the n-l muta- 
tion is norinal; thus liu is readily identified. The occurrence of nu has 
already been mentioned. Such internal loss is not regular in these lan- 
guages. Furthermore the ni of New Caledonia leads us to infer that niu 
was anciently a composite in which ni carried at least some sort of generic 
sense, it being understood that this refers to those characteristics which 
might strike the islanders as indicating a genus. In composition with kau 
(301) tree we should then see nikau, the wi-tree, serving in Mangareva for 
the coconut palm, in New Zealand for the characteristic palm {Areca sapida) 
of that land, in Tahiti as niau for coconut leaf, and as niau in Hawaii for 
the leaf stalk of the coconut. The ni-iorm. is found in Micronesia, and in 
the Marshall Islands ni is the coconut. 



DATA AND NOTES. 391 

In Indonesia there is much form diversity, but we may distinguish two 
classes, those in ni and those in nu. 

ni -class. The closest approximation to the classic niu is Salibabo nyu 
and Dyak nju, and Malagasy nihu comes next. From nihu we are led to 
infer that in the East Indies this iv was scarcely felt to be a pure vowel; 
this naturally admits w as the semi- vowel form of u. Thereby we draw 
into accord Cajeli and development forms of niwi. We find now a group 
which picks up a final liquid, Malay nior, Liang nier, Morella niwil; and a 
new final vowel, Gah niula, Salayer nyorah, Batumerah and Caimarian 
niweli. Lariko niviil is so strangely remote from niwil as to avoid explana- 
tion. Awaiya liweli shows the n-l change already noted in Alite of Mela- 
nesia. Bicol niyog is the only instance of the assumption of a final palatal. 

nii-class. This appears baldly in Java. Sulu nui is at least in form 
metathetic and if that be a permissible explanation nic becomes a secondary 
abrasion form. We have, however, no transition forms in Polynesia and 
Melanesia to point the way to the nw-forms in those areas. Tobo nua is a 
nui variant. The assumption of the final liquid converts nu into Malay 
nur, and nui into Teluti nuelo, Wahai being a metathetic nuel of the 4231 
type. Ahtiago nuim is left without explanation. 

The Semitic here proposed comes into closest resemblance with Teluti 
mielo. This we have seen to be a secondar}'^ development of the ww-class, 
and that class we have seen to be anomalously removed from niu. Even 
niu itself we have been willing to suggest as an advanced phase of a primal 
ni. Thus the chances of Semitic affinity become very small indeed. 

331- 
ori, to rub, to grate, to make a creaking grating noise (as tree branches 
rubbing) ; ari, to plane, to scrape off, to rub off. 

Samoa: olo, to rub down, to smooth, to grate. Tonga: olo, to 
rub, to brush, to scrub, to sharpen, to grind. Futuna: olo, 
olol, to rub, to grate. Niue: olo, to rub, to plane; oloi, to 
grind; holo, to rub. Uvea: holoholo, to rub. Hawaii: olo, 
to rub, to grate. Maori: oro, to grind, to sharpen on a stone. 
Tahiti: oro, to rub, to grate. Mangareva: oro, to rub, to 
whet, to sharpen ; or oro, to rub, to chafe. Fotuna : no-wurusi, 
to plane, to shave ; no-soroa, to grate. >. 

Viti: solota, to rub, to grind, to grate; thoronga, a stone or coral 
on which cane is grated. 

Motu: oria, to grate coconut; uro, a grindstone. Norbarbar: 
heri-v, to rub. Retan: hara-v, id. Mota: sara-v, id. 

Malay: urut, to rub. Malagasy: utra, rubbed; urina, being rubbed. 

Arabic : 'arata, 'arat'a, to rub. Syriac : gra', to scrape off, to shave. 
Hebrew: gara', id. 

It is impossible to consider this as wholly distinct from the stems gathered 
in item 205. 

In that we have Samoa solo. From this the Samoan derives a transitive 
verb by the addition of the usual verb-formative. In abundance of cases 
in this assemblage of data we have seen that this verbal * has sufficed to 
protect and to preserve the final consonant of Proto-Samoan closed roots. 



392 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The fact that here when added to solo it gives us soloi is sufficient evidence 
that in solo we have to do with an open root. The open root is unmistak- 
able in Motu huria and Aneityiim ruhoi. Now as to Mota. Codrington dis- 
misses the suffixes to verbs as certain consonants which make them transi- 
tive, but he offers no explanation of the principle which governs the choice 
of one consonant over another. Consistently I have found reason in these 
studies to regard them as the persistent final consonants of closed roots. 
Mota, then, yields the roots sarag, sarav, not proper kin of the open Poly- 
nesian solo. Viti is again a problem with solota. In general I have found 
it possible to treat these verbal terminations as indicative of root closure ; 
therefore we may infer a root solot. 

Taking up now item 331, we find Samoan olo, which we may faintly 
discern to be Proto-Samoan holo. That would give us solo and holo stems, 
differing slightly as would be expected in my theory of consonantal modu- 
lants. In Fotuna no-soroa would affiliate with solo. The other word, 
no-wurusi, we may link with Samoa fufulu (220). The Tonga fulufuluhaa 
points to a fulus-stem, and this Fotuna is in immediate accord therewith. 
Yet in item 220 we developed a furun-stem. Now Viti thoronga argues a 
Proto-Samoan stem of either solong or holong, and the latter is appreciably 
proximate to furun. The Mota sarav-st&va already noted we here find con- 
tinued to Norbarbar and Re tan. 

We have assembled the following stems : solo, holo, fuliis, fulun, sarag, sarav. 
It is impossible as yet and in the scantiness of material to separate them. 

The Malay and Malagasy might be adjusted if we could clear away the 
difficulties in the Pacific area. 

The triliteron of the Semitic is gr', and this is not identifiable with any 
of the stems here isolated. 

332- 
oro, to grunt, to growl, to snarl; oro-maki, to bark at; bioro, to make a 
confused murmuring noise, as a crowd of men all speaking at 
once ; orooro, uru, uruuru, to growl, to grumble, to mutter, to 
murmur, 
(a) Samoa : ngongolo, a rushing sound, as of v,'ind, waves or thunder. 
Tonga: ngolo, to snuffle, to speak through the nose; taengolo, 
to cough with a rattling hoarse sound; kokolo, a continuous 
rumbling noise. Futuna, Niue : tungolo, to snore. Maori, 
ngoro, to snore, to utter exclamations of surprise or admiration. 
Mangareva: ngoro, to snore, to rattle in the throat; ngongo: 
the noise of phlegm in the throat; ngoio, to snore, to breathe 
through the nose ; tongoro, the noise of water shaken in a bottle. 
Rapanui: ngorongoro, to grunt, to grumble, to snore, to sleep 
soundly. Vanmotn: ngooro,tagoro, to snore^. Hawaii :no«o, 
to snore, to gurgle ; nonoo, to snore ; nonolo, to breathe hard, to 
snore, the sound of singing birds ; hoononolo, to chirp, to coo, to 
growl, to grunt, to snort. Tahiti: ooro, to snore. 
Viti: cf. nggolou, nggonggolou, to shout. 
Mota : ngora, to grunt, to snort, to snore. 

Malay: ngorok, to snore. Malagasy: w^orcxiona, the scuffling sound 
of many feet; gogogogo, screaming with pain. 



DATA AND NOT^S. 393 

(6) Samoa : tdngulu, to snore, to emit a hollow sound. Tonga : ngulu, 
to make a grumbling, grunting, muttering noise ; ngungulu, to 
groan, to roar; fakangungulu, to breathe hard; fengului, to 
mutter or murmur to one another; tangulu, to snore. Futuna : 
ngungulu, to grunt, to emit a deep tone, a grunt, a growl, the 
sound of rumbling thunder; songulu, to snore; iiidu, whistling 
of the wind, any great noise, rumbling of the bowels. Nine: 
ngungulu, to growl. Maori : nguru, to sigh, to grunt, to utter 
a suppressed groan, to rumble, to hum. Rarotonga : ngunmguru, 
to grunt, -to cry out, to wail. Mangareva: ngunguru, a far- 
off noise, a heavy noise as of many voices; ngurunguru, to 
murmur, to grunt, to stammer, to speak through the teeth. 
Paumotu: ngurunguru, to gasp, to moan, to sigh, to breathe. 
Hawaii : nunulu, to grunt, to growl, to sound as the singing of 
birds, to chirp, to warble. Tahiti: uuru, to groan, to grunt. 
Fotuna: tangurungurii, thunder. 
Viti: kuru, to thunder; ngguru, to scranch; langguru, to make a 

scranching sound. 
Nggela: ngurunguru, to roar. Motu: uru, deep groaning, sterto- 
rous breathing. Duke of York: pakpakuru, thunder. 
Malay: guruh,gur oh, thunder; ngaluh, to sigh; n^wrzt, to sigh, to groan, 
to rumble; kurkur, to grunt. Ilocan : gurruud, a thunderclap. 

(c) Samoa : ngu, to growl, to make a murmuring noise as distant voices ; 
ngungu, pa'angungu, to scranch; mangungu, to be scranched, to 
make a grinding noise as when walking over gravel ; fenguingui, 
to talk in a low tone. Tonga: ngu, to grunt; fakangungu, to 
grumble, to mutter. Futuna : nguu, to grunt, to groan. Nine : 
ngu, to moan, to grunt, to roar; ngungu, to scranch; fengui, to 
murmur. Mangaia: mangungu, thunder. Hawaii: nu, to 
groan, to roar as wind, to grunt; nunu, a moaning, grunting, 
groaning, a dove. Fotuna: noh-ngu, to grunt, to groan. 
Rapanui: henguhengii, to murnmr; henguingui, to read. 

{d) Maori : ngara, to snarl. 

Nggela: ngangaraha, to scream. 

Macassar: ngangara, to shriek; gagara, to speak roughly. 

(e) Maori: ngerengere, to growl. Mangareva: ngere, a loud confused 
noise. 
Viti : ngengele, to sing. 

(/) Maori : ngeringeri, to growl. Samoa : ngingili, to have a good voice 
for singing or speaking. 
Nggela: ngingili, shouting. 

Arabic: nah'ara, to grunt; h'ara, to low; h'arh'ara, snort, snore; 
harra, to growl, to snarl ; harharat, murmur or sound of copiously 
flowing water. 

We have assembled here a number of stems which have a common ele- 
ment in form, ng-l, and in sense are united by the fact that they designate 
things audible, almost wholly vocal noises, and uniformly they deal with 
the inarticulate sounds. With the ng-l forms I have associated ngu, which 
seems to be yet more elemental and to represent in itself a common factor. 



394 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The ng-l forms vary in the vowel used, as follows : ngolo, ngulu, ngala, 
ngele, ngili. 

It is noted that the special form tangulu has already been examined in 
item 248 and will be here omitted. 

ngolo. It is only in Samoa ngongolo that we find this stem to deal with 
sounds other than animal; in this language the common ngolo sense is 
carried by 'o'olo of the stem kolo which is readily associable with this group. 
Samoa 'o'olo, according to Pratt in one of his naif definitions, is "to have a 
voice like a hen, to speak indistinctly." Uvea kokolo is to murmur. But 
Tonga kokolo passes from the human sound to that in exterior nature which 
the Samoan expresses by ngolo; it signifies a continuous rumbling noise. 
In Futuna kokolo is the grumbling of the bowels, echo, dull noise ; sound 
of water when bubbling or flowing or falling ; the sough of the wind in the 
leaves of the ironwood. If Samoan ngongolo deviates from the general sense 
of an animal noise it comes back to the norm in its derivative fa'angongolo 
to curse, to utter a malediction, and this seems to err as far in the other 
direction, for such curses as come to most of us depend for their accuracy 
of impact upon their clear articulation. We find the same suggestion of 
articulation in the second sense of Maori ngoro. In Tonga taengolo the 
former element is tae, an alternative of tale to cough. In Mangareva and 
Hawaii the forms lacking the liquid we postpone for consideration with the 
ngu-stem. The Viti nggolou is set here for comparison ; ngg is the equivalent 
of Proto-Samoan k, not of ng; the sense is not exactly in agreement with 
ngolo or kolo. Mota ngora, despite vowel change in the unaccented final 
syllable, is clearly of this kin. Here too we note for inclusion Kfat6 forms of 
oro; oromaki suggests a stem closure in m which is not elsewhere identified. 

ngulu. As we have seen ngolo paralleled with kolo, so this stem has 
its fe-form kulu. That is found in Futuna iiulu and probably in Samoa 
fa'a'tdu'ulu (which Pratt records as fa'auluulu) to cry out, to shout either 
from pain or fear ; in Tonga uulu the sound of anything in motion, and in 
Viti kuru. The basic signification of ngulu and kulu is the deep, confused 
inarticulate soimd, principally animal but capable of extension to outside 
nature. In Hawaii, the northern limit of migration, ngolo and ngulu have 
lost enough of the gruff sense to admit of the inclusion of the note of birds, 
inarticulate but light and cheerful. With this belongs Efat6 uru. 

ngala. This stem is of infrequent occurrence, but we have one excellent 
identification in each of the three island areas, and the Macassar gagara 
proves that for it also there exists a k-iortn. 

ngele. This must not be dissociated from ngili. This stem we identify 
in Polynesia, in Viti, and in Melanesia. 

ngu. This involves as well the stem ngo. The latter is found in Ma- 
ngareva ngongo and ngoio, in Hawaii nono and nonoo; these are in the sense 
of snoring or the rattling of phlegm, senses quite cognate with those we 
find for ngu. This covers all the dull and deep inarticulate sounds from 
the snore to the peal of thunder. I regard this stem as that which primarily 
contains the idea of inarticulate sound. The compounds with a Zo-form 
do not express specific differences. I therefore regard them as determinant 
compounds, each member having inter alia one common signification, the 
compound emphasizing that sense and restricting the meaning to it. 



DATA AND NOTES. 395 

Of the Semitic here offered the stem is hr. Of our Polynesian we have 
seen that ng is a sufficient stem. The Semitic is not in accord therewith, 
and if that difficulty could be obviated it looks toward the later develop- 
ment and not toward the primordial ngo. 

333- 
ra, tra, ta, nra, blood ; mita, to bleed. 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Nukuoro, Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea, Aniwa, 
Fotuna, Nuguria, Sikayana, Vat^, Maori, Tahiti, Marquesas, 
Rapanui, Mangareva, Rarotonga, Manahiki : totb, blood. Pau- 
motu: putotoi, bloody. Bukabuka: kura toto, dark red. 
Hawaii: koko, blood. 
Viti: ndra, blood. Rotuma: tot, id. 

The following signify blood : 

Sesake : nda. Makura : na-dah. Motlav, Volow, Norbarbar, Gog, 
Merlav, Vuras: ndar. Arag: daga. Lo: ndara. Lakon: 
dara. Mosin : nar. Mota : nara. Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel : 
tar. Tanna: neta. Nengone: dra. Lifu: mondra. Pala, 
Eromanga: de. Laur: da. New Caledonia : 'nte. Maewo: 
ndai, ndei. Omba : ndai, ndrai. Malo : dai. Marina : tsae. 
Tangoan Santo : rat. Motu : rara. Sinaugoro, Nala : lata. 

Java, Malagasy: ra. Salayer: rara. Malay: darah. Matabello, 
Teor : larah. Saparua, Awaiya : lalah. Cajeli, Liang, Morella, 
Lariko, Caimarian: lala. Batumerah, Gah: lalai. Teluti: 
lata. Tobo: lawa. Mayapo, Massaratty: raha. Baju: 
lahah. Ahtiago: lahim. Wahai: lasin. Menado, Sanguir : 
daha. Bouton: orah. 

Arabic: dam', blood; damiya, to bleed. Hebrew: dam, blood. 
Ethiopic: dam, id. Syriac: dem, id. 

The Melanesian stem is evidently ta. I find it impossible to bring this 
into accord with the Polynesian toto. There is at no point a vestige of a 
transition form from a to o. On this point I cite Mr. Codrington's note 
(Melanesian Languages, 59) : 

The Polynesian word for blood is toto, which does not appear in the Malay Archipelago 
at all, and in the Melanesian Vocabulary only as tot in Rotuma, where it is probably 
an importation. But toto is used in Melanesia, and in such a way as to show that it is 
at home there and can not possibly be an importation from Polynesia. In San Crist oval 
toto is congealed blood; in Florida the disease haematuria is mimi-toto; and though 
it is not unreasonable to maintain that toto may have been borrowed in those parts, 
it would be very hard to conjecture how it had been done. But toto in the Banks Islands 
is a poisoned arrow, and this can be shown to be the same word. The arrow is called 
after the tree with the viscous sap of which it has been smeared, and the tree has its 
name from the abundance of its sap, in Mota totoai, in a dialect of Fiji dotoa. The sap 
of a tree is its blood, and it is very easy to conceive a word at one time more general in 
its meaning being particularized to signify in one set of languages blood and in another 
sap. It assists this view to observe that toto in San Cristoval is clotted thick blood, 
like the thick sap totoa. 

In Ef ate we have ta and ra (tra and nra being ra- variants) . 
Viti ndra argues a parent in uvular r, but this does not appear in Poly- 
nesia at all. A mere glance at the chart will show that in our Melanesian 



396 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

identifications of the ra-stem. we have Viti at the hither end and Motu at the 
yonder end and that the intervening area hes altogether from the northern 
New Hebrides southward. The only exception to that is Laur da on the 
New Ireland coast. Omitting Laur, these three points mark out the south- 
ern migration, that to which I have assigned the designation of the Viti 
stream. The Melanesian occurrences of toto as presented in the foregoing 
note almost wholly lie along the Samoa stream. 

Similarly when we prick the Indonesian identifications upon the chart 
we find them to lie nearest the southern gateway. 

The Semitic proposed stems in dm. The latter is not found at all in the 
Melanesian; and the former is not the radical r, not even a regular r-d 
mutation, but the resultant of a second loan acting in a manner that has 
already been sufficiently explained. There is, therefore, no reason to accept 
this as an affinity. 

334- 
ran, water. 

Samoa : lanu, liquor amnii, to wash off saltwater (fa'alanu). Tonga : 

lanu, fakalanu, to wash off salt water with fresh. Futuna: 

lanu, liquor amnii, to rinse off salt water with fresh {fakalanu). 

Niue : fakalanu, to wash in fresh, after bathing in salt, water. 

Mangareva: ranu, saliva, globules of foam. 
Viti: ndranu, fresh (of water), to wash in fresh water after having 

bathed in salt. 
Motu: ranu, water. Galoma: nalu, id. Sinaugoro, Hula, 

Keapara, Rubi: nanu, id. Tanna: rani, fresh (water). 
Malagasy : rano, water ; lano, swimming. Java : ranu, water. Kawi : 

ranu, danu, id. Ilocan: danum, id. Malay: danau, the 

ocean. 
Arabic : rahalu, water (of a kind) . 

Here we have one of the rare instances in which a Nuclear Polynesian 
vocable reappears in Mangareva, although the sense is highly modified. 
The word has been carried along the Viti stream, and in Torres Straits we 
have several stations. 

In Nuclear Polynesia the sense is specialized, the waters of birth being 
recorded in Samoa and Futuna, and in every case the word refers to the 
rinsing off of sea water. To wash away the salt water is not only for appear- 
ance sake in the tropical Pacific. The sea has a high degree of salinity and 
the salt crystals are not only the clearly visible signs of an unkempt habit 
when they glisten upon the brown skins, but they are uncomfortable as well. 
This use stamps upon lanu a sense in which the fact that it is fresh water 
is more prominent than the water sense. 

While the Kawi has both ranu and danu the extension of the latter in 
Malay danau to the ocean signification estops us from considering ranu 
and danu as variants ; they seem more likely to be differentiated in mean- 
ing and form. 

The Arabic rahalu, rhl, presents no close resemblance to an rn stem such 
as we have in our island areas. 



DATA AND NOTES. 397 

335. 
rau, leaves (for food to be cooked, and for putting food on, as on a plate, 
when cooked). 

Samoa: lau, a leaf; lalau, to be in leaf; laulau, a food tray plaited 
from a coconut leaf, to set out food on such a tray or on a 
table. Tonga: lau, lou, a leaf; laulau, a tray. Futuna, 
Uvea, Nuguria : lau, a leaf. Nine : lau, a leaf ; laulau, a table. 
Hawaii : lazi, a leaf; laulau, the netting in which food is carried. 
Maori, Tahiti, Rarotonga, Rapanui, Paumotu, Nukuoro, Fotuna : 
rau, a leaf. Mangareva: rau, rou, id. Marquesas: au, ou, id. 

Viti: ndrau, a leaf; rau, thatch, coconut leaves shaken in the water 
to drive fish into the net. Rotuma: rau, a leaf. 

Sesake, Sinaugoro, Hula, Keapara, Galoma : lau, a leaf. Makura : 
lau, aplant. Moanus : laun- (always composite), a leaf. Marina, 
Arag, Vaturanga, Nggela, Motu, Waima: rau, id. Natalava: 
tharau, id. Aneityum: in-rau, a covering, a preparing of 
food for a feast; in-raurau, coconut leaves for a net. Malo, 
Roro, Kabadi: rauna, a leaf. Wango: raua, id. Mukawa: 
raurau, id. Vaturanga: rarau, id. Malekula: raun, id. 
Lakon: drawi, id. Mota: naui, id. Maewo: ndoui. Merlav, 
Vuras : ndoi. Lo : hoi. Vuras, Gog : ndo. Duke of York : 
dono. Mosin : no. Mota : nau, no, id. Mekeo : ngangaunga, id. 
Motlav: ron. Volow: raren, ro. Nengone: ru. Deni: 
leu. Guadalcanar : talu. Omba : raugi. Norbarbar : ndugi. 
Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel : togi. 

Savu: rau, a leaf. Java: rou, id. Malagasy: ravina, id. Saparua: 
laun, id. Baliyon, Baju : daun, id. Malay: daun,dawun, id. 
Sulu: dahun, id. 

Arabic: hadab', branches, leaves; hadiba, hadaba, to pluck, to have 
long eyelashes, to have long branches. 

In Efat6 rau does not have the simple leaf sense, but the meaning of leaf 
tray is found in Samoa, Tonga and Niue of Nuclear Polynesia, and in 
Hawaii. Here it is accompanied with the meaning of leaf, and that is the 
only signification in the Tongafiti languages. That Hawaii laulau, if not 
the food mat, is at least different from leaf and has to do with food is to 
be attributed to that direct voyage from Nuclear Polynesia for which we 
have gathered so many pieces of evidence. That Futuna and Uvea,though 
geographically in Nuclear Polynesia, have not the food-tray signification is 
a point to be considered with other evidence as tending to show that the 
settlement of these two islands in such close proximity was principally 
Tongafiti. 

The Samoan lalau by its preduplication shows lau to be considered a com- 
posite, la-u. The latter member we may not presume to identify, but the 
former has a suggestive resemblance to la, lala, a branch, also a botanical 
term. We note in Tonga, Mangareva, and the Marquesas alternative forms 
with the vowel 0. The fact of two forms in Viti of different sense points 
to two distinct sources. The ndrau leaf is derived from a stem rau having 
the r grassey6; rau is derived from rau of the lighter r. This suggests that 



398 THK POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

in Proto-Samoan the two forms were distinct, a distinction which in the 
later weakening of the Uquid it has been found impossible to preserve. 
Thus may we accotmt for the occurrence of the food-tray sense in Efate 
and Aneityum without the leaf signification. It will be observed that 
Aneityum has the fishing sense found in Viti, which further is found in 
Samoa lauloa a surround of coconut leaves, and in Tongarewa raurau driv- 
ing fish with coconut leaves. 

In Melanesia rau a leaf is found somewhat widely: Sesake, Motu, Marina, 
Arag, Vaturanga, Nggela; Omba raugi is the same with a formative suffix. 
Makura is only slightly removed in signification. Natalava tharau is a rau- 
composite, as is Wango raua. Vaturanga rarau is in form a parallel of 
Samoa lalau. Moanus and IMalekula laun and Malo ratma introduce the 
Indonesian final n; Moanus we might ascribe to that influence ; Malo and 
Malekula lie beyond its reach. This n, therefore, may represent a persistent 
radical 7i-closure. 

We are next to examine a group of forms with i-final, all New Hebridean. 
This i is a suffix to noun stems when they are used absolutely. Of the 
a-series we have Lakon drawi preserving the r grasseye by a preface as in 
Viti, Mota naui nau. Of the o-series we have Maewo ndoui; Merlav, Vuras, 
ndoi; Gog, Vuras, ndo; Mosin, Mota, no. These two series introduce that 
r-nd-n-d mutation which we find it so hard to comprehend. Pak to-gi is a 
direct derivative from Vuras ndo. Still on the o-series we have Duke of 
York dono and Motlav r-on, both with the n. Volow ro, and Nengone ru, 
Guadalcanar ta-lu (suggesting Natalava tha-lau) and Norbarbar ndu-gi 
belong in this series with still a further vowel change. Deni leu is probably 
a form of lau, but unique. A still different mutation, r-h, is needed to 
account for Lo ho-i, also unique. 

In Indonesia we find rau, rou, laun and daun, all occurring in Melanesia ; 
and Malagasy ravina is very close to Lakon drawi. 

The Semitic here proposed is represented without variation by the 
triliteral hdb, which can have no relation with our island composite la-u 
or la-un. 

336. 

rongo, rong i, tongi (dongi), nrong, tong i, to hear, to obey, to feel, to know; 
marongo, matrongo, manrong, to be idle, to amuse oneself at 
the expense of someone. 
Samoa: longo, to hear, to feel, to report, a sound; longona, to hear; 
langona, to understand, to feel, to perceive by the senses; 
fa'alongo, to hear, to obey. Fakaafo: fakalongo, to hear. 
Futuna: longo, a report, tidings, to perceive, to feel. Nine: 
longona, to hear, to perceive by the senses, to understand, to 
smell; /an^ono, to hear; o»^o, a report. Uvea: /owg'o, to hear, 
to perceive, to feel, to comprehend, a message, a report ; fakalongo, 
to obey. Nukuoro : longo, to hear ; longo mat, to obey. Raro- 
tonga: akalongo, to hear. Hawaii: lono, to hear, a report; 
/ioo/ono, to listen, to regard. Nuguria : w/ono, to hear. Maori: 
rongo, to hear, to feel, to smell, to taste, to obey, tidings, report, 
fame, sound, noise. Mangaia: rongo, a report; akarongo, to 
listen. Mangareva: rongo, to hear, to listen, to understand, 



DATA AND NOTES. 399 

to know, to apprehend. Aniwa : fakarongo, to hear. Fotuna : 
no-rongona, to hear. Paumotu: rongo, to hear; fakarongo, to 
cause to beHeve. Rapanui: rongo, to hear, to believe, to 
comprehend, to understand; hakarongo, attention, to adhere, 
to hear, to comprehend, to understand. Tonga: ongo, to 
hear, to feel; ongoongo, to report; fakaongo, to hearken, to 
await commands; longona, to inform, to report. Marquesas: 
ono, oko, to hsten, to understand; hakaono, to listen. 
Viti: rongo, to hear, to be heard, to sound, a report, tidings; -vaka- 

rorongo, to listen, to obey. 
New Britain: logor, to hear, to report. Lambell: longor, to hear. 
King: longor 6, id. Duke of York: longor o, id. Baravon: 
walongore, id. Kaluana.: 'walongore,'walawalongor, id. Bierian: 
mlongo, id. Mekeo: longo, to hear, to know. Tagula: ilongwe, 
to hear; kau-lungwe, to know. Nguna, Arag, Sesake: rongo, 
to hear. Maewo: rongo, to believe. Omba: rongo, to feel 
any sensation. Vaturanga : rongo, to feel a sensation. Malo : 
rongo, to hear. Nggela: rongorongo, news; vaovarongo, the 
hearers ; rongovia, to hear. Vaturanga : rongovia, rongomi, to 
hear, to listen to. Mukawa : nonora, to hear, to know. Tavara, 
Wedau: nonori, id. Awalama, Taupota: nonori, to hear. 
Oiun: nowara, id. Raqa: anoara, id. Kabadi: oonova, id. 
Roro: ona, id. Uni: abai-oa, id. Nggao: rongi, to under- 
stand. Volow: rong, to hear. Sesake: ndongo, to smell. 
Omba : ronghogosi, to listen ; rorongtagi, to hear a sound. Arag : 
rorongtai, to listen to. Marina, Mota: rogotag, to hear. Gog: 
rongtag, id. Ambrym, Retan : rongta, to hear, to feel. Motlav, 
Vuras: rongteg, to hear. Mosin: rongte, id. Norbarbar: 
rongte, to feel. I,o: rongte, to hear, to feel. Santo: ronoa, 
to hear. Maewo: roro, roroi, rove, a report. Mota: roro-i, 
a report ; ronga, famous ; rongo, to apprehend by the senses, to 
feel, hear, smell, taste. Baki : mjongi, to hear. 
Java: runnu, to hear. Matu: langan, sound, noise. Malay: 
dangar, to hear. Malagasy: rohona, a sound, as of thunder. 
Arabic: 'adina, to hear, to know, to feel the smell of, to cause to 
hear, to make known. Hebrew: 'azan, he'zin, to hear, to 
listen, to obey. 
In the Polynesian at least three senses are entangled in the stem longo, 
to hear, a thing heard, and to preserve silence. The latter, fa'alolongo, 
falls easily into place, for it is a composite with the fa' a of comparison, to be 
as one listening, therefore to be silent, "be silent that ye may hear." We 
find at least two Polynesian closed stems, longon of the sense perception 
and longos of the production of a sound that may be heard. The latter 
seems to appear in the Viti rongotha but with the longon sense to hear, the 
former in Tonga longona but with the longos sense to report. Beyond these 
two inverted instances the closed stems have left no definite record. 

In the examination of this material we shall confine ourselves to so 
much thereof as finds identification in our Melanesian records, namely, the 
matter of sense perception. 



400 TUB POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

In item 324 we have discussed the stem mata the eye and the sense of 
sight. This longo seems to serve for the other sense. This we shall 
examine in general and in particular. 

(i) Sense perception in general: Samoa, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Maori, 
Mangareva, Tonga, Marquesas ; Bfate, Omba, Vaturanga, Nggao, 
Ambrym, Retan, Norbarbar, L,o, Mota. 

(2) To hear: Samoa, Fakaafo, Niue, Uvea, Nukuoro, Rarotonga, 
Hawaii, Maori, Mangaia, Mangareva, Aniwa, Fotuna, Paumotu, 
Tonga, Marquesas, Viti ; Ff ate. New Britain, Lambell, King, Duke 
of York, Baravoil, Raluana, Bierian, Nguna, Arag, Sesake, Malo, 
Nggela, Vaturanga, Volow, Omba, Marina, Mota, Gog, Ambrym, 
Retan, Motlav, Vuras, Mosin, Lo, Santo, Baki; Java, Malay. 

(3) To smell: Niue, Maori; Sesake, Mota. 

(4) To taste: Maori; Mota. 

(5) To feel: Maori; Mota. 

The last three deserve a little closer inspection. 

(3) To smell. Niue: longona, to smell; hongi, to smell. The latter is 
external ; it is the snifif with which the odor-emanations are welcomed to the 
olfactory nerve-endings ; the apperception rests in longona. Maori : rongo, 
to smell; hongi, to smell; whakamono, to smell. Whakamono is to sniff, to 
sniff up, to smell, and probably in reference to a nauseous odor, for mono- 
mono means unpleasant to the smell. It also is external ; the apperception 
rests in rongo. Mota: rongo, to smell; punpun, to smell; soman, to smell. 
Punpun in sense is the Mota equivalent of Polynesian songi as found in the 
Niue and Maori preceding, this shown in the fact that it means to sniff 
in general and in particular designates the salutation roughly called rubbing 
noses. Soman means to put the nose to. These two, therefore, are 
external; the apperception rests in rongo. 

(4) To taste. Maori: rongo, to taste; wharakai, to taste. We have 
only the definition of the latter and are without information as to the 
extent and manner of its use. Mota : rongo, to taste ; nam, namis, to taste. 
The latter is physical ; it means to touch with the tongue ; it is external ; 
the apperception rests in rongo. If rongo in Maori and Mota had not such 
a catholic applicability to all sense perception except sight we should 
find an interesting text in the fact that these savage people had arrived 
at a comprehension of the intimate association of taste and smell which 
has not become at all commonly familiar to persons of far wider range of 
information. 

(5) To feel. In the extreme brevity of our vocabularies no attempt has 
been made to note the distinction between feel in its tactile sense and the 
broader signification of perception in general. We are therefore not justi- 
fied in attempting a differentiation not warranted by our authorities. 

The following general conclusions seem well supported by the facts of 
this record. 

At a period but narrowly anterior to the Tongafiti or later migration the 
psychology of the Pol)Tiesian recognized two sense perceptions, the sense 
of sight and the other sense. When this other sense began to differentiate 
in the direction of the knowledge of the sense perceptions which our own 



DATA AND NOTES. 401 

race has so long possessed that only recently they were classed as instincts, 
it was the sense of hearing which first came up for particular designation. 
I am somewhat in doubt as to this statement ; it is hard to comprehend the 
psychology of conditions so different from our own. The same material 
might equally bear the interpretation that the other sense was most 
commonly understood as that of hearing. 

In a psychology of which the sense perception is at no higher speciali- 
zation than sight and the other sense it will not surprise us to discover that 
the sense of touch has not yet been isolated from the merely mechanical 
pressure of the skin upon an exterior object. I do not say that tactile 
sense is as yet unrecognized, but I will let the vocabulary tell its own story 
in a few of the better- known Polynesian languages. 

Samoa: tangotango, to feel; it is used in the sense to take hold of, 
therefore it means no more than to have in the hands or to have 
the hands upon. 

Tonga: ala, alafi, to feel; its particular use is to touch, to feel after 
with the hand. 

Viti : yamotha, to feel; to feel for with the hand, to run the hand over. 

Maori: whawha, to feel; to handle, to grasp. 

Hawaii : haha, to feel ; to move the hand over a thing. 

These are representative of the central and of the distal languages of 
Polynesia and they represent varying culture planes. It is clear that in 
not one of them does the sense of feeling exist independently of the physical 
impact which constitutes the touching. 

In the matter of form the Polynesian variations of longo are strictly 
according to rule, except that in Samoa and Nine a longona form is intro- 
duced, not found elsewhere until we reach Indonesia. 

In the eastern gateway we find an extended form longoro, which may be 
found again in Malay dangar. In the New Hebrides the termination which 
varies from tagi to te is verb-formative. The Omba ronghogosi may best 
be understood as a composite. In Nggela and Vaturanga we have rongovia, 
and in Vaturanga rongomia, consonant forms which agree neither with the 
forms in the eastern gateway nor with those found in Nuclear PoljTiesia. 

In Indonesia Java rungu is a satisfactory identification ; the Malay is 
far less sure. Matu langan is in good form accord with Nuclear Polynesian 
langona, but the sense is not so clearly of kin. The Malagasy rohona inter- 
jects a syllable for which we have no means of accounting. 

The skeleton of the Semitic is 'dn, 'zn, with which it is impossible to 
establish our Polynesian longo in any sort of accord. 

337- 
sa, to be bad, evil. 

Samoa : isa, an expletive of disapproval. Tonga : sa, an expression 
of disgust and disapproval; isa, to hiss, to disapprove. Fu- 
tuna: saa, indecent, improper; isa, exclamation of indignation. 
Fotuna: sa, bad. 
Viti: tha, bad; isa, interjection of disapprobation. Rotuma: 
raksa, bad. 



402 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Sesake, Lakon: sa, bad. Pak, Leon, Sasar: se, id. Alo Teqel: 
see, id. Malo, Eromanga: sat,id. Norbarbar: set, id. Motlav: 
het, id. Volow: heat, id. Aneityum: has, id. Merlav: 
sasat, id. Mota: iatas, id. Maewo: seseta, id. Wango, 
Alite: taa, id. Tanna: ra, id. Savo: isarongo, id. 
Malay: jahat, bad. Malagasy: ratsi, id. 
Arabic: .yo', sawat, to be bad, evil. 
Although all our identifications of sa in Nuclear PoljTiesia are inter- 
jections they seem quite satisfactory. 

In Viti we find the word in two forms. It would appear that isa is a 
more modern appropriation of the word, for exclamations in any language 
travel far and travel true. This will not be doubted by such as have had 
occasion to welcome as an old friend in the most distant surroundings our 
own truly Athanasian contribution to the vocabulary of the world's objur- 
gation. The Rotuma raksa, like so much in that odd speech, remains for 
the present inexplicable, but it is safe to identify the sa. 

In Melanesia we find that the Proto-Samoan stem was sat. The abraded 
form is found in Efate, Sesake, Leon, Lakon, Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel. Malo, 
Eromanga, and Norbarbar retain the stem form. Motlav het is an easy 
variantof Norbarbar set. Yolowheat ishat with the vowel interpolation cus- 
tomary in that language. Aneityum is easily deducible as hat with the t-s 
mutation. Merlav sasat and Maewo seseta are preduplications of sat and 
set. Mota tatas is therefore metathetic. Savo isarongo is probably an isa- 
composite. Wango and Alite taa is hard to adjust ; the fact that in each 
language an inner t is frequently excised might warrant us in suggesting 
tata, but even though that has some resemblance to Mota tatas it fails to be 
convincing. On the possibility of s-r mutation in Tanna ra see note 239. 
Malay jahat will pass muster as a hat-composite. Malagasy ratsi can not 
be accepted without more evidence. 
The Semitic is certainly a resemblance. 

338. 
saki, to ascend, to go up; sakesake, to be up, to sit upon. 

Samoa: a'e, upward, to go up; sa'e, to elevate one leg, as in the 
act of falling in a club match ; 'a'e, to ascend, to rise. Tonga : 
hake, upward, to ascend. Futuna: ake, up, to ascend; sake, 
to raise the leg at one in derision or mockery; kake, to climb, 
to ascend. Nine: hake, up, to go up. Uvea: ake, up; hake, 
to go up. Maori: ake, upward; kake, to climb, to ascend. 
Marquesas : ake, on high, upward ; kake, to ascend. Mangareva : 
ake, upward. Bukabuka: ake, up. Tahiti: ae, up, to go 
up, to ascend, to climb. Hawaii: ae, to raise, to lift up, to 
mount. Fotuna : no-jikijiake, to lift up ; no-tukake, to stand 
upright. Nukuoro: kake, to go up. Nuguria: kake, up; 
hanage, northwest. Rapanui: kake a, to go aboard. 

Viti : thake, upward ; thaketa, to dig or lift up. 

Sesake, Tangoan Santo, Nguna: sake, up. Malo: sace, up. Vatu- 
ranga: sake, id.; sahelia, to go up into it. Mota, Merlav: 

sage, up. Omba: hage,\6.. Nggela: hage, to go Vip; hagelia, 
hagevia, to embark. Bugotu: hage, up; hagelia, to go up on 



DATA AND NOTES. 403 

a ship. Belaga: hage, to enter; hagelia, to embark. Gog: 
sag, up. Norbarbar: hag, id. Eromanga: sah, id. Volow: 
ha, id. Saa: ta'e, landwards. Motu: dae, up. Wedau: 
g'ae, id. Sinaugoro: rage, id. Keakalo: agi, id. 

Malay: daki, up. Malagasy: akatra, ascended, gone up. 

Hebrew: nasak, up, to go up. Aramaic: nsak, sak, id. 

By combining various elements in the material here assembled it is seen 
that the Proto-Samoan has three stems, ake, sake, kake. Regarding ake 
as the primitive stem the others devolve naturally therefrom in variant 
significations conditioned by the prefixation of consonantal modulants. 
The primal ake is evidenced by its existence in Futuna along with sake, 
and in Uvea with hake. Sake is restricted to the Proto-Samoan migration ; 
it is by no means clear whether it was originally hake or sake, for in that 
early stage there seems to have been little distinction between aspiration 
and sibilant; the employment of hake in Uvea (which has both h and s) 
inclines for so much weight as it may possess toward hake over sake. From 
the fact that kake is confined to Nuclear Polynesia and the Tongafiti area 
it is evident that it was carried by the later migration ; it appears nowhere 
in Melanesia. In the Solomon Islands hagelia (Nggela, Bugotu, Vaturanga, 
Belaga), and hagevia (Nggela) suggest closed stems sakel, sakev, of which 
no further trace exists. 

Our Melanesian forms all derive from the sake stem and very few call for 
comment. Volow ha is doubtful for the reason that we have no record 
of the dropping of g in that language ; while the form seems akin to Nor- 
barbar hag, there is not a single instance here of a terminal abrasion from 
an open stem to other than a consonant closure. Saa ta'e is readily brought 
into line, for k is commonly elided in that speech, and the s-t mutation is 
seen again in the next item; the sense is quite comprehensible, for every 
landward direction in Malanta is upward, and Mota sage makes this inland 
sense plain as defined by Codrington "to go inland towards the inner upper 
part of the country," but generally a'e means to windward. 

The Indonesian identifications are too slight to have any particular value. 

One of the Semitic forms bears a close resemblance to sake, but this 
amounts to little if we may look back to a primal sakel. 

339- 

sela, road, path, landing place of a canoe. 

Nukuoro: sailenga, ala, a road, a path. Tonga, Nine: hala, id. 
Samoa, Futuna, Uvea, Hawaii: ala, id. Nuguria: hara, id. 
Maori, Tahiti, Mangaia, Rapanui, Mangareva : ara, id. Pau- 
motu: eara, id. Marquesas: aa-nui, the highway. 

Viti: sala, a path, road. Rotuma: sala, id. 

Mota, Malo: sala, road, path. Deni: hala, id. Saa: tala, id. 
Taupota : talaka, id. Awalama : talaha, id. Tavara : taeaha, id. 
Roro: tai-ara, id. Motu: ariara, a road through a village; 
dara, a road through forest. Uni, Pokau : dala, road. Wango : 
tara, a road. Belaga: thalautu, id. Bugotu: hatautu, id. 
Wedau, Kubiri, Kiviri, Oiun: eta, id. Raqa: eta-fu, id. Suau, 
Dobu: eda, id. Galavi, Boniki, Mukawa: keta, id. Sariba, 



404 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Murua, Kiriwina: keda, id. Nada: keza, id. Sinaugoro, 
Rubi: da, id. Wedau: tete, id. Nggela: halautu, id. Male- 
kula: ne-sar, id. Aneityum: ne-falaig, id. Mota, Mosin: 
matesala, id. Pak: -me'esal, id. Merlav: metsal, id. Volow: 
metehal, id. Motlav: na-mtehal, id. Sescike: matakisala, id. 
matawirsal, id. Vuras: matekpwersal, id. I/o: luwomejal, id. 
Mekeo: ke-anga, inengea, id. 

Malay: a/a/i, course, direction; .$•cZe/^, a road; jalan, id. Silong: 
jalan, id. Java, Ilocan: dalan, id. Malagasy: aleha, id. 

Arabic: s'ala' , to proceed, to call. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is hala. 

The Nukuoro sailenga is incomprehensible. 

In Melanesia we find two groups of composites. That which occurs in 
the New Hebrides is in the simplest forms mata and sala, the evolutions 
of the former being here negligible. Sala varies to sal, hal, and jal. The 
last form is in Lo luwome-jal, of which the former member is obscure. The 
Solomon Islands composite is hala-utu, of which the succeeding member 
has so far escaped identification. In this group we have hala, thala, and 
hata, and on the /-/ mutation see note 312. Saa and Wango involve the 
h-t mutation noted in 338, the same applying to Motu dala and Indonesian 
dalan and jalan. If Aneityum na-falaig be admissible we have no direct 
evidence in support of the h-f mutation, but h-v once occurs, sina'a (169) 
Sesake vinaga. 

The Indonesian forms are satisfactory except for Malagasy with the 
anomaly of an interpolated syllable. 

The Arabic has a form resemblance, but the sense is not at all satisfactory. 

340. 
seme, sama, the outrigger, or, more accurately, the part of the outrigger, 
shaped exactly like a canoe, which floats in the water. 

Futuna : ama, the outrigger ; samatasi, a small canoe. Tonga : hama, 
the outrigger, the smaller part of a double canoe ; fakahama, to 
put an outrigger on ; ama, the port side of a canoe (the outrigger 
side). Samoa, Tahiti, Marquesas, Mangareva, Tongarewa, 
Nuguria, Paumotu: ama, the outrigger. Maori: ama, the 
outrigger, in a double canoe the space between the two hulls. 
Hawaii : ama, the longitudinal stick of the outrigger. Fotuna : 
U-ama, id. 

Viti: thama, the outrigger. Rotuma: sama, id. 

Mota, Tubetube, Brierly Island : sama, outrigger. Malo : isama, id. 
Bierian: m-/iawa, id. Baki: wi-ame, id. Yaraikana : toma, id. 
Koko-Yimidir : (iarmaw, id. Nada: dam, id. Tangoan Santo : 
tsama, id. Tanna: timen, id. Malekula: ni-jam, id. Anei- 
tyum: jmaing, id. Kiviri, Oiun: rama,id. Raqa: aurama, id. 
Kuhiri: ramani, id. Wedau: ^'awo, id. Qaiavi: gamanaki,id. 
Mukavfa: g'amani, id. Mugula, Kiwai : i'anma, id. Sariba: 
sarime, id. Mabuiag: saima, id. Motu: darim,a, id. Pokau: 
dalima, id. Hula: ralima, id. ICiriwina: lamila, iamila, id. 
Awalama, Taupota: haruma, id. 



DATA AND NOTES. 405 

Malay: sampan, a small boat. Malagasy: sambu, a ship. 
Arabic: safinat, safin', a ship, a vessel. Hebrew, Syriac: sefina, id. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is hama, which appears in Polynesia as ama, 
sama, hama, thama. 

In Melanesia we find sama, hama and ame. The h-ts mutation in Tangoan 
Santo appears in Polynesia itself. The h-t mutation in timen is not else- 
where recorded from Tanna, but a glance at the table will show it to be 
not unusual in other parts of the Melanesian area. The same is to be said 
of Malekula jam, and this leads readily to Aneityum jmatng. The Torres 
Straits sarima and devolution forms lie outside the possibility of cordial 
acceptance. 

The Indonesian identifications which Dr. Macdonald presents depend for 
their force upon the actual employment of an outrigger. This is not the 
common naval architecture of the sampan ; it is quite out of the question 
in the Malagasy. 

The value of the Semitic lies in the establishment of so small a part for 
so great a whole. Even were that acceptable the Semitic has a resemblance 
in but a single consonant. 

341- 

sili, to enter; sili-fi a, to enter into (as a spirit or [demon into a man); 

sili-faki, siii-fiki, to make to enter into, to thrust or throw into. 

Samoa: sulu, to thrust into, to plunge into (as a canoe into waves), 

to take refuge in; sulufa'i, fesulua'i, fesuluna'i, to take refuge 

with; suluma'i, to thrust or push through or into. Tonga: 

hulu, to plunge, to push, to rush under water as a canoe in a 

heavy sea ; hulumaki, to push in or through. Futuna : sulu, 

to put or place within, to thrust into. Nine: huhulu, to 

thrust, to push. Nukuoro: sulu, suru, to dive. Fotuna: 

sum, to dive, to swim under water. 

Samoa: sili, to lodge in, to stick in (as a pen behind the ear); 

silinga, a penholder, the place to stick in the fish hook; sisili, 

to shoot, to dart (as pain from one part of the body to another) . 

Tonga : hili, hilifaki, to lay or put upon ; hilinga, a number of 

spears tied together, a platform on which things are laid. Nine : 

hilifaki, to stick in. 

Viti : thuruma, to enter; thurumaka, to push a thing into or through. 

thiliva, to cut or lance the body. 
Mota : saro, to go in ; saromag, sarovag, to sheathe. 
Malay: julok, to thrust into. Malagasy: juluka, to enter. 
Arabic: dahala, duh'uV , to enter (a house), to take refuge with, to 
thrust in. 
In form our Polynesian material preserves two distinct series, that in u 
and that in i, but the consonant skeleton is the same and the significations 
interlace. We are justified, therefore, in dealing with them, at least pro- 
visionally, as homogenetic. Both series are confined to Nuclear Poljoiesia. 
For the sulu series we find Proto-Samoan stems suluf, sulum, sulun. 
For the sili series we find a Proto-Samoan stem sllif. 
Viti has both series as derivatives of sulum and silif . 



406 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

In Melanesia Bfat^ is of the sUif-stem ; Mota, with vowel changes, derives 
from the two stems suluf and sulum. 

In Indonesia the two identifications are clearly of sulu with its proper 
final consonants abraded and passed from memory and then treated with 
a formative termination of Indonesian habit. 

The Semitic must account for additional radical matter before we can 
accept the partial resemblance. 

Where we have sulu and sili in parallel series we find it difficult to make 
a plain separation of the shades of signification. The utmost upon which 
we may venture is to note that the sense varies generally in relation to the 
size of the thing which is thrust, sili denoting the smaller or finer-pointed, 
this distinction being best seen in Samoa and Viti. 

342. 
sina, sine, to shine, to be clear. 

Sina, hina, ina, is used throughout Polynesia in the senses of 
glistening, white, gray. 

Samoa, Futuna, Fakaafo, Sesake : masina, the moon. Tonga, Niue, 
Uvea, Hawaii, Maori, Tahiti, Rapanui, Marquesas: mahina, id. 
Mangareva : maina, id. Nuguria : masina, mahina, id. 

Viti: singa, the sun, day; thina, a torch, a lamp; singasingau, white. 

Fagani : sina, the sun. Misima : sinasina, id. Nada : silasila, id. 
Misima: hilahila, id. Dobu: sinara, id. Wango: sina, id.; 
haasinaria, to dry in the sun. Nggela: hina, to shine (sun); 
hinari, to burn. Belaga : thina, sunshine. Mota : singa, to 
shine; singasingai, a shining; singesinge loa, sunshine (loa, the 
sun). Lambell: singsinge, to dry (presumably by putting 
out in the sunlight, as in Wango). King: sengesengd, id. 
Lamassa: sangsdng, id. Merlav: .y*n^, to shine ; singsinge aloa, 
sunshine. Gog: sing, to shine; singsinge walo, sunshine. 
Aneitytim: gesega, the sun. Doura, Motu: dina, daylight, 
the sun. Uni : Una, the sun. Mekeo : kina, id. Uni : dia, id. 

Malay: siyang, day, clear; sinar, a ray of light, luster; ber-sinar, 
to shine; sinar-bulan, moonlight. Ilocan: sinamar, splen- 
dor. Magindano : sinang, sun, midday. Java : rahina, day. 
Sulu : fasina, the moon. 

Arabic: saha', sun, day, to shine, to be clear. Ethiopic: sahavia, id. 
Hebrew: sahah, id. 

It is matter of no slight interest to find that a stem which in Polynesia 
serves to designate the lesser luminary is used in Melanesia to denote the 
sun. In this connection our linguistic material has left two records. One 
that la, the general Polynesian word for the sun, was not carried in the 
Proto-Samoan migration, for it has left no trace in the Melanesian halting- 
places. The other that masina, the general Polynesian word for the moon, 
was brought into Polynesian, in its present derivative form, by the Tonga- 
fiti migration, for it is only in Sesake that we find masina as moon. Our 
Polynesian records show us that sina was a sun name, i. e., the shiner. At 
the same migration era the moon was also a shiner, see pupula 284. The 
Tongafiti now comes to Nuclear Polynesia bringing la sun and masina moon. 



DATA AND NOTES. 407 

and the Proto-Samoan early colonists finding their earlier names not suffi- 
ciently differentiated, for the root sense of shining is equally in use, adopt 
the later forms. It is only in Niue that we find a persistent relic of the 
older moon name, pupula the new moon. But Viti, untouched by the 
Tongafiti swarm, preserves singa sun and viila moon. 

In Melanesia sina designates the sun, but there is not lacking evidence 
that its root signification of shining is close to the surface. Thus in Nggela, 
Mota, Merlav, and Gog hina does not denote the sun as a name but is used 
of its shining, and in three of these instances the Melanesian word for sun, 
alo, walo, aha is subjoined. 

In Indonesia we find sina in the root sense of shining. Malay siyang is 
not properly to be included, but sinar and its composites are unmistakable. 
The Magindano sinang is the only instance outside of Melanesia in Vv^hich 
we encounter the sun sense. Java rahina seems to be a composite of ra 
sun and sina to shine. 

The Semitic is, as so often in Dr. Macdonald's material, a one-letter 
resemblance and valueless. 

343- 
sinu, sisinu, to be hot, to bum (of the grass on the hills yearly) ; sinu, the 
burning of the grass, a place on which the grass has been burned ; 
tuni, to heat; tunu, to heat, to oppress or make to suffer; 
bitunu, bitin, bitsin, to be hot, painful; tutun, to light up 
torches or the evening cooking fires. 
(o)Futuna: masinu, the smell of burning fat (feathers, hair). 
Hawaii: ohinu, to roast meat; ohinuhinu, to be parched and 
dried, as the outside of roast meat. 
Viti : cf . sinunganga, a tree whose sap has a burning effect on the skin. 
(6) Samoa: susunu, to bum up; sununga, a burning; sunusunu, the 
burnt bush where a plantation is made; masunu, to singe (as 
the hairs of a pig) . Futuna : sunusunu, to singe a bird ; susunu, 
to bum, to broil, to put on the fire ; masunu, burnt by the sun, 
the odor of burning hair or feathers. Tonga: huhunu, to 
singe, to sear; hunuhunu, to toast, to singe, to broil; mahunu, 
blighted. Niue : huhunu, to bum ; mahunu, to blister with heat. 
Uvea: mahunu, a burning. Maori: hunu, to char, to singe. 
Viti: kuro-susunu, the name of a disease, an epidemic, 
(c) Samoa : tunu, to roast, to toast, to broil, to fry, to boil. Tonga : 
tunu, to toast, to broil. Futuna: tunu, to broil, to roast, to 
toast, to boil. Niue : tunu, to broil, to boil, to roast. Maori : 
tunu, to roast, to broil, to bum. Tahiti: tunu, to roast, to 
boil. Rarotonga: tunu, to broil, to cook on embers. Mar- 
quesas, Rapanui, Nuguria, Nukuoro: tunu, to cook. Hawaii: 
kunu, to roast on embers. Uvea: tutu, to toast. Fotuna: 
tuna, to roast, to cook, 
(d) Samoa: tutii, tungia, to set fire to, to kindle, to light (as a 
lamp) ; tunga'i, to light up a fire at night. Tonga : tutii, to 
bum, to set on fire; tungaki, to light a beacon; tungia, to set 
on fire. Futuna : tutii, to light, to burn, to set fire to ; tungaki, 
to light a beacon; tungia, to kindle, to set fire to. Niue: 



408 TH^ POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

tungi, to light a fire or a lamp, to burn. Maori, Rarotonga: 
tungi, to kindle, to set on fire. Hawaii: kuni, id. Uvea: 
tutu, to set on fire. Tahiti: tutui, id. Rapanui: tutu, to 
kindle, to set on fire; tutunga, combustion. 

Viti: tunu, warm; vakatunu, to warm up cold food; tutuvaka, to 
light, to set on fire; tungiva, to kindle. Rotuma: sunu, hot; 
fuf, to light, to kindle. 

Buka: sinanga, warm. King: sunun, fire. Laur: songsong, hot. 
King: misongot, id. Epi: pisusunu, id. Malo: tunu, to 
roast, to heat. Motu: tunua, to bake pottery. Marina: 
tutunu, hot. Gog, Lakon, Mota, Santo, Vuras, Mosin : tutun, id. 
Belaga : tutun, to burn. Duke of York, New Britain : tun, id. 
Pala: tun, to cook. Lo: tun, hot. Mota Maligo: tin, to 
roast over embers ; Veverau : tun, id. Sasar, Alo Teqel : i'in, id. 
Lambell, Lamassa : /«m, to cook. King: itutiin, id. Mota: 
tutunsag, fever. Ulawa : tunga, fire. Bugotu : totha, to light 
(a lamp). 

Malay : tunu, to burn, to consume with fire. Macassar : tunu, to 
bake, to roast. Savu: tunu, to roast. Bugi, Landa, Binue, 
Baliyon: tunu, to burn. Sambawa: tunang, id. Sassac: 
tulu, id. Lampong: tunkan, the hearth. Kandayan: tinu, 
to burn. Malagasy: tono, to roast. 

Arabic: sah' ana, suh'un', to hehot. Hebrew: ^'a/zaw, id. Syriac: 
s'hen, id. 

Our Efate material groups several consimilars exhibiting both vowel and 
consonant distinctions. These reduce to the four primitives sinu, sunu, 
tunu, tung. It is not difficult to trace these to a common source particu- 
larized by modulants. We shall examine these in detail. 

sinu. This is the least frequent. It occurs in Efate, Viti, enters Nuclear 
Polynesia by way of Futuna, and is found again in Hawaii, a landmark at 
that end of the direct migration to that outlier which was reached only in 
a roundabout circuit by its main, or Tongafiti, peopling. We lack Motu 
data, but, so far as Efate- Viti-Futuna may determine the course, we are 
disposed to charge this to the Viti stream. The Viti sinunganga is a com- 
posite readily resolvable into this sinu hot and ngdngd which is variously 
defined as poisonous, bitter, sour, salt, in other words highly objectionable. 
In Futuna masinu is of the common composition with ma-conditional ; it is 
a synonym of part of the meaning of masunu. Hawaii ohinu is influenced 
by the local idiosyncrasy which prefixes to many verbs this distinctive o. 
The only forms in i noted elsewhere in our material are the not wholly 
satisfactory Buka sinanga and Kandayan tinu. 

sunu. This also is a Nuclear Polynesian form, but as sinu pointed the 
way along the direct northern migration this points out the southern migra- 
tion direct from Nuclear Polynesia to New Zealand. We have seen reason 
to credit sinu to the Viti stream ; similarly we find reason to hold sunu to 
have been a particular form of the Samoa stream. Sunu does not appear 
in Efate or in Viti, but its presence in Rotuma is significant by reason of 
the fact that this island lies northward from Viti. In Melanesia (except in 



DATA AND NOTES. 409 

the single instance of Epi pisusunu) it is found only in King and Laur in the 
eastern gateway, and Buka sinanga may turn out to be a sunu form when 
we have more abundant data from the northern Solomons. In Nuclear 
Polynesia we have generally sunu and masunu with no great diversity; the 
only wide division in apparent signification is Tonga mahunu, and as to 
this the Baker vocabulary is too terse to enable us to draw any conclusion. 
The Viti kuro-susunu (kuro being a pot) is of uncertain application. 

tunu. This is the form common to the Proto-Samoan and Tongafiti migra- 
tions ; it is found in Viti and Polynesia generally, largely in Melanesia, and 
it has a good representation in Indonesia. Sinu and sunu have shown 
senses which imply contact with the naked fire, and that idea is largely 
predominant in tunu, as exemplified by the definitions of toasting, roasting, 
broiling, cooking on embers. Disregarding the instances in which the word 
is rendered by our general verb to cook we shall examine the exceptions 
to this naked flame sense. It is used of boiling in Samoa, Futuna, Nine, 
and Tahiti. It is significant that not one of these peoples had taken so 
much as the first step in fictile art, and such heating of water as was needed 
was performed by dropping hot stones into the water in a wooden bowl. 
Equally significant it is that in Viti, where pottery had advanced to the 
possession of luster and glaze, the word does not mean to boil (Viti : kere, 
kerea, to boil; wewe, ndanda weruweru, to boil to pieces). I have no hesi- 
tation, therefore, in ascribing this signification to the careless lack of pre- 
cision of European influence. In Samoa alone is it used of frying and here 
there can be no doubt whatever; the infamy of the frying pan is distinctly 
European, the islanders had not that suicidal implement for the assassi- 
nation of their digestion. In Melanesia the course of tunu may easily be 
followed. The Mota Maligo tin suffices to account for an unrecorded pre- 
duplication titin, and from this by excision of t, normal to those Vanua Eava 
dialects, Sasar and Alo Teqel obtain i'in. The Indonesian forms are all 
homogenetic with tunu. 

tung. This also is common to the Proto-Samoan and Tongafiti migrations. 
It also shares the sense of the open flame but with this difference : the other 
forms have dealt with objects brought to the flame, this in its senses of 
lighting and kindling deals with the flame brought to some object, exactly 
paralleled by our English locution of setting fire to an object. The dis- 
criminating final consonant is carried over into the languages of the Tonga- 
fiti second swarming out of Samoa more distinctly than is commonly the 
case. Rotuma /m/ is characteristic ; Proto-Samoan Hs commonly changed 
to / in that speech; therefojEe fuf is tut, a simple abrasion of Samoa tiitu. 
Viti has the word in two forms, tungi and tutu, and has applied to each its 
own formative terminations, these two forms representing the earlier epoch 
when Proto-Samoan retained its closed stem and the later in which it 
had undergone abrasion. This difference of development level also appears 
in Ulawa and Bugotu of the Solomon Islands. 

The Semitic has the shn skeleton, and that does not accord with any of 
these island forms. Furthermore the meaning amounts to no more than 
heat, whereas the stems here assembled are explicit in their insistence, not 
upon warmth but upon the open flame. 



410 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

344- 
susu, the breast, to suck the breast ; bakasusu, to suckle. 

Samoa: susii, the breast; fa'asusu, to suckle. Futuna: susu, to 
suck; u, the breast. Tonga: huhu, the breast, to suck the 
breast; fakahuhu, to suckle. Niue: huhu, the breast, nipple; 
fakahuhu, to suckle. Uvea : huhiv, the breast, the nipple, to give 
milk, to suck. Nuguria: /litfett, milk; w, the breast. Tahiti, 
Rarotonga: u, the breast, milk. Maori, Hawaii, Marquesas, 
Mangareva, Paumotu : «, the breast. Fotuna: feo-M, tosuck; 
vai-u, milk; ta-u, nipple. Rapanui: u, the breast; vaihu, milk. 

Viti: suthu, the breast, to suck the breast, to be bom. 

Mota, Lamassa, New Ireland (Port Praslin), Mugula, Dobu, Galavi, 
Boniki, Mukawa, Kubiri, Kiviri: susu, the breast. Laur: 
susu, id. Mabuiag: sus{u), id. Motu, Suau: susu, milk. 
Aneityum : nasusu, an infant. New Ireland (Carteret Harbor) : 
susun, the breast. Brumer Island : susuga, id. Buka : ssussuge, 
the nipple. New Ireland (Duffield) : susung, kasiing, the breast. 
Lambell, Pala, King: sus, id. Mota Veverau: sus, id.; Maligo: 
sis, id. Nada: sese, id. Buka: viata na sus, the nipple. 
Buka: .ywj'^, the breast. Waima: tutu, id. Kiriwina, Raqa : 
nunu, id. Oiun: nuni, id. Taupota: g'ug'u, id. Wedau: 
gugu, id. New Britain: u, id. Malo: susu, the breast, to 
suck. Baki: yu, milk, nipple. Malekula: mi su^, to suck; 
na sus, milk; susin, the breast. Bierian: ohun, the breast. 

Wango: haasusu, to lay (of a hen). Mota: vasus, to give birth. 
Nggela: vahu, to be born. Norbarbar: visis, to give birth. 
Retan: vusus, id. King: vusus, id. Lambell: 'hiasiis, id. 
Lamassa: iasus, id. 

Malay: susu, the breast, milk. Java, Bugi, Pampangas, Macassar: 
susu, the breast. Tagalog: suso, id. Matu: susan, id. 
Visayas: du^han, id. Kayan: usok, the breast; so, milk. 

Waigiou : sus, the breast. Waigiou Alfuros : su, id. Malagasy : 
nunu, id. 

Hebrew: s'od, the breast. Arabic: t'idy', t'udiyy', id. 

The data here collated will be found subject to a double complication. 
In Viti we find suthu meaning the breast, to suck the breast, to be bom. 
If it were solitary we might strain analogies and strive to bring these two 
into correlation, but we need go no further than Wango haasusu to find 
reason to give over the effort, for it is only in botany that ornithogalum can 
be conceived of as even a remote possibility. It will best be disposed of by 
regarding susu of parturition as a distinctively Melanesian element which 
chances to have the same form as the Proto-Samoan susu the breast. In 
a separate paragraph I have set aside the Melanesian homogenetics of this 
non- Polynesian susu. It will be seen that in general it appears in com- 
position with the causative haa-va, and in Lambell and Lamassa it will be 
observed that this has greatly disintegrated. 

In the sense of the breast susu is distinctly a Proto-Samoan possession, 
primarily the breast and secondarily to suck the breast ; for in Efat^, Samoa, 



DATA AND NOTES. 411 

Tonga, and Nine we find a causative to convey the latter signification. 
This form runs through Melanesia, and greatly to our surprise it prevails in 
Indonesia, where in general the agreement is more close with the Tongafiti 
stage of the Polynesian. 

The Tongafiti word for breast is u. This we may not regard as a dilapi- 
dated form of susu, su-hu-u, for in that case we should expect the aspiration 
to be present in the languages in which it entails no difficulty. The only 
way in which I can adjust it to the susu series is to regard u as primal and 
su to have become a particularized form through the employment of a 
consonantal coefficient. In Nuclear Polynesia this w-form appears only in 
Futuna, a language in which Tongafiti influence is strongly marked — not 
so strongly in this instance, however, as to obliterate the Proto-Samoan 
susu to suck. At a distance, and in the western verge, u appears in Fotuna 
in the sense of sucking, which the word nowhere else carries, for in exterior 
Polynesia the words meaning to suck have no relation to the word for breast. 
New Britain u is of the Tongafiti type, and in Epi the Bierian ohun sug- 
gests a su form which undergoes yet further demolition in Baki yu. 

The Indonesian identifications, as before remarked, are quite generally 
of the susu or Proto-Samoan type. The Malagasy nunu is out of order, 
for we have no data tending to establish an s-n mutation. 

The Semitic proposed is sd, td, in structure a resemblance of but one 
consonant and without attempting to account for the other, therefore not 
to be accepted. 

345- 
ta i, tata, to chop, to cut, to speak or utter (as it were making a chopping 
noise). 

Samoa : td, to strike, to beat ; tatd, to speak rapidly, to break fire- 
wood (by hitting a tree or a stone with the billet to be broken). 
Tonga: ta, to strike, to beat, to hew; tai, to strike, to beat. 
Futuna : ta, to strike, to beat, to cut, to hew. Nine : ta, to 
strike, to kill, to adze. Uvea : ta, to strike, to cut. Maori : 
ta, to beat, to cleave, to split up. Tahiti: ta, to strike, to 
repeat or tell a tale. Rarotonga, Marquesas: ta, to strike, 
to beat, to kill. Mangareva: ta, to cut. Paumotu: ta, to 
strike, to cut (in composition). Nuguria: taa, to hew. Sika- 
yana, Moiki: ta, to strike. Nukuoro: ta, to cut. Hawaii: 
ka, to strike, to beat, to cut or split wood. 

Viti : ta, tata, to chop or cut with an axe. 

New Britain : ta, to strike. Moanus : ta, to beat, to strike. Male- 
kula : tai, to cut. 

Malay: to^afe, to chop. Macassar : to«a, to fell, to cut off . Mala- 
gasy: ta, the sound of beating or knocking; tatana, to chop. 

Arabic : hadda, to cut quickly, to utter speech quickly. 

With this stem we have an irregular associate referring to speech. Kfat6 
ta to speak, to utter; Samoa tatd to speak rapidly; Tahiti ta to tell a tale. 
Dr. Macdonald's parenthetical suggestion "as it were making a chopping 
noise" is far too childish for consideration. We must regard this as the 
survival of a ta-vocable elsewhere forgotten. 



412 TH^ POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The root to I have aheady (27 American Journal of Philology, 383, 386) 
treated by dissection to the seed and consonantal coefficient, and have 
developed the suggestion that "the root to through its long series of known 
combinations carries a strongly featured sense of action that is peripheral, 
centrifugal, and there seems to be at least a suspicion of the further conno- 
tation that the action is exerted downward." Thus in most of our Poly- 
nesian occurrences of the simple root and in two out of the three Melanesian 
identifications we find the primal sense to strike. The secondary sense of 
cutting will easily be seen to be a striking with a specialized implement, 
and we find this sense stated without recognition of the primal striking 
only in Mangareva, Nukuoro, Viti, and Malekula. 

In Indonesia this secondary sense is predominant, although Malagasy to 
may come somewhat close to the striking idea. 

The Semitic is far too complex, hdd, to stand in kinship with the sim- 
plicity of our to. 

346. 

tangi, to wail, to cry, to ring, to sing, to clank, to hum ; tangi-si, to bewail. 

Samoa: tangi, to chirp, to bellow, to roar, to wail, to lament, to 
weep, to chant a poem, to complain ; tatangi, to tinkle, to ring. 
Tonga: tangi, to cry, to weep, to call out; tatangi, to ring, to 
tinkle; taangi, to chant a poem. Futuna: tangi, to weep, 
to groan, the cry of any animal, the sound of any implement. 
Nine : tangi, to weep, to cry. Uvea : tangi, to weep, to shed 
tears, to howl, the cry of animals, to appeal to. Maori : tangi, 
to cry, to sound, to coo, to roar, to weep, to wail; tatangi, to 
rattle, to jingle; takitaki, to recite a song. Mangaia: tangi, 
to sound, to cry, to sing, to wail, to weep, to lament. Manga- 
reva : tangi, to mourn, to wail, to weep, to sing, to make a noise, 
the sound of a bell or of a trumpet. Rapanui : tangi, to cry, 
to howl, to groan, to weep, to pity, to covet. Paumotu: 
tangi, tatangi, to weep, to bewail, to lament. Tongarewa, 
Nukuoro, Manahiki, Fakaafo: tangi, to cry. Aniwa: noko- 
tangi, id. Vate: tetangi, id. Nuguria: hakatani, to bewail. 
Marquesas: torn, taki, to sound, to sing, to bark. Tahiti: 
tai, to sound (as an instrument), to weep, to cry; tatai, to 
rehearse or recapitulate the particulars of an agreement. 
Hawaii: kani, to make a sound more or less musical, to hum 
a tune, to sound (as a trumpet), to make a report (as a gun), 
to crack (as a whip), to rumble (as thunder), to squeak, to 
crow; kanikani, to tinkle. 

Viti : tangi, to cry, to weep aloud, to lament, to crow, to sing. 

Nguna: tangi, to weep. Omba: tangi, to cry; tangisi, to cry for 
someone. Nggela: tangi, tangihia, to lament; tangitangi, to 
sing (of birds). Vaturanga: ton^*, toweep; tangisia, to weep 
for. Bugotu : tangi, to weep ; tangihia, to weep for. Nggao : 
tangi, to weep. Matupit: tangi, to cry. Baravon: tangi, 
to weep. Belaga: tangi, sounding (of a bell). Lambell: 
tangis, a tear. Maewo: tangtangisa, pitiful; tangtangisi, to 



DATA AND NOTES. 413 

feel pity for, to show mercy to. Mota : tangi, tangis, iangtang, 
to cry, to weep. Vuras: tengteng, id. Motlav: teng, id. 
Sinaugoro : tagi, to weep, to cry. Motu : tai, to cry, to howl, 
to weep. Redscar Bay: tai, to cry. Aneityiim: taing, to 
cry, to weep; ataingataing, to sing (as a kettle before boiliog). 
Santo: ^om, to cry. Malekula: /e«^, tocry; tengsi, to h&'wa.iX. 
Malo: tangtange, to cry; tangisia, to bewail. Baki: jengi, to 
weep, to bewail. Tangoan Santo : tangi, to cry; tangsia, to 
bewail. Pokau: kani, to weep, to cry. Uni : cani, id. Hula, 
Keapara, Galoma : agi, id. Roro : hai, id. Waima : hai, to cry. 

Malay: towgw, toweep. Siwa: tow^t, toweep. Tagalog: taghoy, 
to weep, to lament. Java : nangis, to weep. Kayan : nangi, id. 
Ilocan: sangit, to cry, to weep floods of tears. Malagasy: 
tany, a cry, a lamentation. 

Arabic: tanna, to tinkle, to clank, to ring, to hum; tanien, din; 
tantun, to tinkle, to jingle. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is tangis. 

The significations are polyphase; therefore the time will not be ill 
employed in segregating them into such classes as may be found to exist. 

A. Non-vocal. Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Maori, Mangareva, Tahiti, Hawaii, 

Efate, Belaga, Aneit3Tim. 

B. Vocal. 

a. The animal cry: Samoa, Futuna, Uvea, Maori, Marquesas, Hawaii, 

Viti, Nggela. 

b. The human voice: 

1. Sounds of pleasure: Samoa, Tonga, Maori, Mangaia, Mangareva, 

Marquesas, Tahiti, Hawaii, Viti, Efate. 

2. Sounds of pain: Samoa, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Maori, Mangareva, 

Mangaia, Paumotu,Tongarewa, Nukuoro, Manahiki, Fakaafo, 
Aniwa, Tahiti, Viti, Efate, Omba, Motu, Redscar Bay, Santo, 
Malekula, Nggela, Mota, Vuras, Motlav, Aneityum, Matupit, 
Malo, Baki, Tangoan Santo, Tagalog, Ilocan, Malagasy. 

2a. The howl and the tear: Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Uvea, Maori, 
Mangaia, Mangareva, Paumotu, Tahiti, Viti, Nguna, Vatu- 
ranga, Bugotu, Nggao, Baravon, Mota, Aneit3a]m, Baki, Malay, 
Siwa, Tagalog, Java, Kayan, Ilocan. 

26. The wail of petition: Samoa, Uvea. 

To these should be added Lambell tangis, a tear, and Maewo tangtangisi, 
in which the tear drops in pity. Until we reach the ultimate items the 
common factor of this wide range of significations is the inarticulate sound, 
and even where it distinctly means to sing or chant the sense rests upon 
the music and not the words. 

The form calls for no extended comment beyond the general remark 
upon the frequency with which the final s is preserved. Aneityum taing 
is metathetic. The a varies to e in several New Hebridean languages, and 
in Santo to 0. Java and Kayan show the t-n mutation which appears in 
four New Ireland languages in 329. Ilocan sangit seems to be a most 
unusual metathesis, type 52341. 



414 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The Arabic approaches but a small sector of the sense of tangis, shows 
no sign of the radical s, and is really in resemblance only so far as relates 
to the initial consonant, no satisfactory showing of kinship. 

347- 
tai, excrement, filth. 

Samoa: tae, excrement. Tonga: tae, excrement; tee, dung of 

animals. Futuna: toe, excrement. Uvea: tae, id. Niue: 
te, id. Maori: tae, gum exuding from plants; tahae, filth; 
tutae, excrement. Tahiti: tutae, tiatae, id. Marquesas: feae, 
slaver; tutae, excrement. Mangaia, Mangareva, Paumotu: 
tutae, id. Rapanui: tutae, excrement, mildew. Moriori: 
hokotae, disgusting, abominable. Hawaii: kukae, excrement, 
dirt, filth; haukae, filthiness; kae, the exterior of the anus. 
Fotuna: tah-tai, excrement. 
Viti: nda, excrement of man; nde, of beast. 

Motu: tage, excrement. Hula: kage, id. Matupit: taka, id. 

Brierly Island : tai, dung. Malo : tai, excrement. Baki : ta, te, id. 

Mota: ta, tae, id. Malekula: ne-ten, id. Aneit3aim: in-tin, id. 

Malay, Macassar: tai, dung, ordure, excrement. Magindano: tae, id. 

Malagasy: tay, id. 
Hebrew : seah, excrement, filth, from yasa' to go out. 
The simple stem tae is Proto-Samoan, the Tongafiti has tutae. This 
discrimination gives us a time measure for the Moriori hokotae (hoko is 
the equivalent of faka of resemblance). Once more we have a landmark 
of the direct southern migration and we find it to be Proto-Samoan. 

Tonga and Viti distinguish between man and beast, and by the same 
means. A similar form distinction is found in Baki, but we lack informa- 
tion of a corresponding source distinction. In Aneityum in-tin refers to 
beasts and a word of another stem, nohok, refers to men. 

That this should voluntarily be assumed as a personal name passes 
comprehension. Yet in the ancient story of the swimming sisters (terato- 
logically a Siamese twin monster) of Samoa the first object seen glistening 
on a Tutuila beach on which they came to shore caused one of the sisters 
to give herself the name Taemd {ma to shine). Exactly the same word 
appears in Mota gak taema as an endearing expression of admiration. 

The Motu and Matupit forms with an inner palatal are listed for so much 

resemblance as they possess ; I doubt their affinity. The Malekula ten and 

Aneityum tin are of this stem with the local assumption of n-ephelkustic. 

The Indonesian identifications are quite satisfactory. I note again the 

accord with the Proto-Samoan rather than the Tongafiti and later form. 

Except for the subject the Hebrew offering can have nothing whatever 
to do with this stem. 

348. 
tale, a belt, rope, string. 

Nukuoro : tali, a rope. 

Viti: ndali, a rope or large cord. 

Mota : tali, a cord. Wango : tali, a rope. 

Malay: tali, a rope, string, bandage. Malagasy: tadi, a rope. 

Arabic : ddra, to go round, to whirl, to turn. 



DATA AND NOTES. 415 

Although estabhshed at few points this stem is of pecuUar value. We 
note its identification at two Indonesian points, at three in Melanesia, and 
in Viti. In another subdivision of these data we have encountered several 
instances of stems common to Indonesia, Melanesia, and Viti. This instance 
very brilliantly illuminates those, for here we are prevented from assuming 
a Polynesian migration which got no nearer its destination than Viti. 
Tali is found nowhere in Nuclear Polynesia or exterior migration lands, 
but it is found in Nukuoro. That distant island, almost a backward eddy, 
we have already shown to have received its population from Samoa in a 
secondary colony. The preservation of tali on Nukuoro shows it to have 
existed in Samoa at the time of this northern voyage. Since the date of 
that voyage tali has vanished from Samoa and in Nuclear Polynesia has 
been replaced by maea (62). 

The Semitic proposed has a consonantal resemblance, but there is abso- 
lutely nothing in signification to support the resemblance. 

349- 
tale, the taro (so called because round; talc, taltal, roimd). 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Tonga, Futuna, Nine: talo, the taro. Maori, 
Tahiti, Mangareva, Bukabuka, Rarotonga, Fotuna, Aniwa, Vate : 
taro, id. Nukuoro: taro, tao, id. Moiki: tango, id. Mar- 
quesas: tao, id. Hawaii: kalo, id. 

Viti: ndalo, the taro. 

Motu: talo, the taro. Eromanga: tal, id. Aneityum: in-tal, id. 
King, Rubi: kali, id. Sinaugoro: kare, id. Hula: kale, id. 
Keapara: ale, id. 

Malay: talas, the taro. 

Arabic: ddra, to go round, to whirl, to turn; da'ro, orb, round. 

This staple food product is excellently identified in our three island areas. 

The etymology in Efate "so called because roimd" is worse than childish ; 
it is a fabrication to establish an identity with the Arabic proposed. After 
observing that Arabic ddra has just been employed (348) to account for 
the cylindrical slimness of a cord and now for the roughly ovoid shape of 
the taro underground stem, than which two objects could scarcely be more 
dissimilar, one pauses in wonder at the mental process. 

350. 
taliga na, linga na, naliga na, the ear. 

Samoa, Fakaafo, Futuna, Uvea : talinga, the ear. Nukuoro : talinga, 
a horn; taninga, the ear. Maori, Rarotonga, Paumotu, Fotuna, 
Manahiki, Aniwa, Fotuna, Rapanui : taringa, the ear. Nuguria : 
tarina, id. Sikayana: feaMtoZtwa, id. Liueniua: feartn^a, id. 
Tahiti: taria, id. Tonga, Nine: telinga, id. Mangareva, 
Vat6: teringa,id. Moriori: tiringa, id. Moiki: tanginga, id. 
Marquesas: pu-aika, pu-aina, id. 

Viti : ndalinga, the ear. Rotuma : faliang, id. 

Pala, New Britain, Nguna, Duke of York : talinga, the ear. Laur : 
talingd, id. King, Lambell: talngd, id. Buka: dalinga, talinga, 
taliga, id. New Georgia : talenge, id. Sesake, Epi, Lo, Bougain- 
ville, New Georgia : ndalinga, id. Wango, Fagani : karinga, id. 



416 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Marina, Vella Lavella (Bilua) : salinga, id. Ulawa, Bululaha, 
Alite: alinga, id. Saa: alinge, id. Kiriwina: taigila, id. 
Tavara, Awalama, Taupota : taniga, id. Wedau: tanig'a, id. 
Suau, Mukawa, Kwagila, Raqa: taina, id. Mugula, Kiviri: 
teina, id. Oiun: tain, id. Galavi, Boniki: teini, id. Dobu: 
tena, id. Murua: /e^a,id. Nada: tina, id. Panaieti, Misima : 
tanan, id. Motu: torn, id. Redscar Bay: toiya, id. Pokau, 
Doura: kaia, id. Kabadi: kaina, id. Roro: haiana, id. 
Mekeo: aina,id. New Ireland (Carteret Harbor): pralenhek, 
palalignai, id. New Ireland (? Tregear): plahingia, id. 

Eromanga:ife/*^o, id. T,akon: telngan,id. Iiamassa: telngd,id. 
Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel: telnegi, id. Motlav: ndelngege, id. 
Volow, Norbarbar: ndelngigi, id. Bierian: seligo, id. Moanus: 
ndrilinga, id. Baki: tiline, id. Tanna: numateligen, id. 
Aneityum: tiknga, id. Malekula Pangkumu: riringa, id. 
Axnhrym: ringi, id. Natalava: kulinda, id. 'Nggela: kuli, id. 

Malay, Bouton, Dyak, Visayas: talinga, ear. Java, Basakrama: 
talingan, id. Menankabau: talingo, id. Satawal: talinhe, id. 
Chamorri: talanga (talanja), id. Ulea: talenga, id. Mala- 
gasy: tadiny, id. Sulu, Tagalog: toi«^a, id. ST^ong: tengeh, id. 
Teor: karin, id. Malay, Sula, Baju: telinga, id. Mayapo: 
telingan, id. Morella: telina, id. Batumerah: telinawa, id. 
Liang, Lariko : terina, id. Awaiya: terina-mo, id. Caimarian: 
terinam, id. Saparua: terena, id. Cajeli: telila, id. Wahai: 
teninare, id. North Borneo: linga, id. Matu: lingah, id. 
Massaratty: linganani, id. Bugi: tjuling. Macassar: toli, id. 

Hebrew: 'ozen, 'azenaim, 'azene, the ear. Syriac: 'adna, id. 
Chaldee: 'uden, 'udena, id. Arabic: 'udn', 'addn', 'udun', id. 

In the study of this material we shall need to concern ourselves with form 
variety. The signification is ever3rwhere the same, the ear. This refers 
to so much of the ear as is known to the rude anatomy of these islanders, 
the outer ear. The externality is so distinct that in Nukuoro we find the 
word serving for a horn. We shall examine the more regular of these 
variants point by point, the vowel variety scarcely calling for comment. 

T. This is found in all Polynesia but one, in Indonesia (except Teor, 
North Borneo, Matu, Massaratty), and in Melanesia as follows: 
Bfate, New Britain, Duke of York, Nguna, Laur, King, Lambell, 
Lamassa, Buka, New Georgia, New Guinea (Motu, Redscar Bay), 
Eromanga, Lakon, Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel, Baki, Tanna, Aneityum. 

d, nd. Viti, Buka, Sesake, Epi, To, Bougainville, New Georgia, Motlav, 
Volow, Norbarbar, Moanus. 

k. Wango, Fagani, Natalava, Nggela, Teor. 

s. Marina, Bierian. 

f. Rotuma. 

Vanished: Marquesas, Ulawa, Bululaha, Alite, Saa. To this are to 
be added the instances of abrasion of the first syllable: Efat6, 
Ambrym, Malekula Pangkumu (regarded as preduplicated ringa), 
North Borneo, Matu, Massaratty. 



DATA AND NOTES. 417 

L. As / or r it is present in all Polynesia but three, almost all Indonesia, 
and a large part of Melanesia. The variants are here noted. 

ng. Moiki. n. Nukuoro, Wahai. k. Aneit3mm. d. Malagasy. 

Vanished: Marquesas, Motu, Redscar Bay, Sulu, Tagalog. In Silong 
the whole syllable /* has vanished. In the following languages 
the / is preserved but the i has vanished : King, Lambell, Lamassa, 
Lakon, Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel, Motlav, Aneitjmm, Norbarbar, 
Volow. 
NQ. This is most extensively preserved. We may not attempt to list 
the g-iorms, for our vocabularies are uncertain in the employment 
of g for g and for ng. The variants are as follows. 

n. Pak, Sasar, Alo Teqel, Baki, Malagasy, Teor, Morella, Batumerah, 
Liang, Lariko, Awaiya, Caimarian, Saparua, Wahai. 

nd. Nggela. 

1. Cajeli. 

Vanished: Marquesas, Motu, Redscar Bay. The whole final syllable 
nga has been lost through abrasion in Nggela and Macassar. 

The following forms call for particular notice. Rotuma faliang is taliang 
and that is seen to be metathetic. Three New Ireland forms are anoma- 
lous. One, plahingia, is cited by Tregear without memorandum of source. 
The others are derived from Gaimard's Carteret Harbor in the "Voyage of 
the Astrolabe, " almost a century ago. The region is that covered more 
closely in 1904 by Stephan, under the name of Lamassa. Allowing for 
less skill in catching the sounds in Gaimard's brief sojourn, pralenhek and 
telnga and palalignai are in fair accord as regards the linga element and 
plahingia is not far removed. In the older forms we find initial t obscured, 
but the obscurity takes the form of a reinforced liquid, pr, pi, pal. While 
we may not hope at this lapse of time to reduce this difficulty we note 
that in Moanus, in the same gateway area, the initial Hs in the form of a 
reinforced liquid. 

The Semitic forms reduce to 'zn, *dn, neither of which may be at all 
associated with ting, the universal stem of our island forms. 

351. 
tanu e, tanua, tani, taniu, to spit; tanua, taniu, spittle. 

Samoa : anu, to spit ; anusanga, spittle ; anusalo, to hawk up phlegm. 
Tonga: aanu, spittle, to spit; anuhia, to spit upon, to bedaub. 
Futuna: adnu, adnusi, to spit. Uvea: aanu, id. Niue: 
anu, id. Mangareva: anuanu, id. Marquesas: anuanu, 
spittle. Rapanui: aanu, saliva, to spit. Maori: anuanu, 
offensive, disgusting. Tahiti: manuanu, loathsome, surfeit- 
ing, to be qualmish. 

Viti : kanusi, to spit. Rotuma : onusi, id. 

Nggela, Bugotu : angusu, to spit. Mota : anus, id. Lakon : anuh, id. 
Lo: ngenguh, id. Wango, Fagani: ngusu, id. Saa, Ulawa: 
ngisu, id. Bululaha: nisu, id. Nggao: misu, id. New 
Georgia: kamisu, id. Boniki: kanu, to spit. Kubiri: kanu, 
spittle. Mukawa: bi-kanu, to spit. Kubiri: kakanu, id. 



418 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Kiviri : kakan, id. ; kan, spittle. Volow : ngih, to spit. Motlav : 
nih, id. New Ireland (Carteret Harbor) : />wwj, id. Alite: 
ngilu, id. Motu: kanudi, id. Pokau: onoc^i, spittle, to spit. 
Boniki: feamma, spittle. Mukawa: kanuta, id. Sinaugoro: 
kanunu, spittle, to spit. Rubi: kanuru, id. Hula: kaninu, id. 
Keapara: aninu, id. Nada: kinura, id. Misima: kunruvi, 
to spit. Wedau : anumai, spittle. Galoma : aniulu, to spit ; 
aitWw, spittle, to spit. Kabadi: aww^w, to spit. Malekula: 
rut, id. Malo: lito, id. 
Malay: ludah, to spit. 
Arabic: rawwala, tarwilu, spittle. 
Three stages of stem form are included in these data, kanus, anus, nus. 
The longer form kanus is found most definitely in the Viti stream. Motu 
gives us kanudi, the s-d mutation having already been noted in this lan- 
guage in sina (342) to shine Motu dina and receiving support from similar 
mutations to be found in the table. Bfate with k-t mutation gives us 
the abraded form tanu, and Viti comes back to normal in kanusi. New 
Georgia, with an inner mutation later to be discussed, falls into this line, 
and so, but less obviously, does Lo ngenguh. Gaimard's Nevv^ Ireland form 
maybe taken as an obscure record of a kanus form, but no particular reliance 
is to be placed upon it. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is anus, abraded to anu in modern Polynesian, 
save where formative suffixes have availed to protect the terminal conso- 
nant. This reaches into Rotuma onu^i and with slight modification to 
Nggela and Bugotu angusu. As a closed stem it is found in Mota anus and 
Lakon anuh. 

The nus stem is found in Wango and Fagani ngusu, Saa and Ulawa 
ngisu, Bululaha nisii, Volow ngih, Motlav nih. Nggao misu involves an 
n-m mutation for which we have no confirmatory data save such as may be 
derived from the ng-m, m-n, m-ng listed in the table. It follows so 
closely upon Bululaha nisu that it is probably safe to accept it. Alite 
ngilu involves another mutation, s4, for which we lack outside support 
save as it may be found in s-r discussed in note 329. 

Malekula rut and Malo lito fall into accord with Malay ludah, but it 
would require a long line of well-established transition forms to bring that 
into affinity with any part of the kanus stem. 
And the Arabic is utterly out of place. 

352. 
tas, tasi, the sea, salt : 

Tonga: tahi, the sea; fakatahitahi, to wet with salt water; taitai, 
brackish. Nine: tahi, the sea, the seacoast, the tide; puke 
tahi, vaitahi, salt water. Samoa, Maori, Rapanui, Nuguria: 
tai, the sea, the tide. Futuna, Tahiti, Mangaia: tai, the sea, 
the seacoast. Marquesas : tai, the sea, the shore ; taitai, slightly 
salt. Mangareva : tai, the sea, the shore, salt water. Tonga- 
rewa: tai, salt. Nukuoro: tai, the sea, salt water, the south. 
Uvea, Rarotonga, Manahiki, Aniwa, Fotuna, Vat^: tai, the sea. 
Sikayana: waitai, salt water. Hawaii: kai, sea, salt water. 

Viti: tathi, the sea. Rotuma: sasi, sosi, seas, id. 



DATA AND NOTES. 419 

(a) in the sense of sea : 

Marina, Tanna, Sesake : tasi. Lambell, King : tdsi. Buka : tassi, 
dassi, tisi, itis. Santo: tosi. Bpi: tzi, tsi. Pala: tes. 
Kalil: taas. Modnus: ndras. Laur: lontas. Belegaitathi. 
Arag, Nggela : tahi. Makura : na-tah. Matupit : ta. Ambrym : 
tei, tie. Epi (Southeast) : si. Wango : asi. Malekula : 
nitis. Malo, Mota : tas. Baki : tei. Bierian : sahi. Ero- 
manga Ura: de. 

Kawi, Bugi, Java : tasik. Malay: tasek. Gah: tasok. Ceram, 
Ahtiago: tasin. Tobo, Ahtiago, Ceram, Guaham : ^cwi. Togean 
Islands: taste. Chamorri: tahsi. Satawal: tati. Matabello: 
tahi. Sunda: chai. Macassar: djai. 

Arabic: ta's', the sea. 

(b) in the sense of salt, salt water : 

Sesake, Marina, Vaturanga: tasi. Arag, Omba, Nggela, Bugotu, 
Nggao: tahi. Maewo: tas. Ulawa, Wango, Fagani, Saa, 
Alite: asi. Bululaha: moi asi. Motu: tadi. Duke of 
York : tai. New Britain : ta. 
Amboyna: tasi. Awaiya, Caimarian: taste. Bum: sasi. Tidore, 
Gani, Galela: gasi. Sanguir: asing. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is tahi. The form with aspirate is selected as 
primal for the reason that a Proto-Samoan tasi would have remained tasi 
in modem Samoan and would have become tahi in most of Polynesia. 

It is only in Tonga tahi sea, taitai brackish, that we recognize any form 
distinction of the two significations. While, therefore, they have been 
segregated in the data collated we shall consider the form variants together. 

In addition to the sense of sea and salt water, hardly to be dissociated, 
we find in Polynesia the following added significations : 

Tide: Samoa, Nine. 

Shore: Nine, Futuna, Tahiti, Marquesas, Mangareva, Mangaia. This 
is a development out of the system of direction nomenclature, for as ki uta 
means landward, so ki tai, seaward, is limited by the shore as the end of 
pedestrian locomotion. 

South: Nukuoro. This has for us a peculiar interest. Nukuoro is but 
a tiny speck of an island ; 360 degrees of its horizon show nothing but the 
upward saucering of unbroken sea. It was over the southern sea of 3,000 
miles that the people came voyaging from Samoa. It must have been a 
bitter drift of castaways coming famished to land when generation after 
generation has preserved the word for sea, the terrible sea over which they 
struggled, in the sense of south. Other seas there about them, to north, 
to east, to west ; but a race impressed by the agony of its castaway forebears 
still recalls the one sea, the south. 

The forms tasi, tahi, tathi are very clearly identifiable in Melanesia and 
Indonesia. Epi tzi, tsi, are, of course, tasi with loss of the former vowel. 
The tas by abrasion is found in Malo, Mota, and Maewo ; and tis in Buka 
itis, Malekula ni-tis. Next we find tah in Makura na-tah, and a still further 
progress in New Britain and Matupit ta, followed by Ambrym tei, tie, Baki 
tei, Eromanga Ura de. I^aur lontas, is a composite, Kalil taas is recogniz- 



420 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

able, and Moanus ndras presents the irregular reinforcement which has 
before been noted in words from that speech. Bierian sahi corresponds 
to Rotuma sasi and sosi, of which seas is a metathetic stage, and to Bum 
sasi. Motu tadi finds a parallel in Satawal tati, and Duke of York tai 
in the modern Polynesian form is not far remote from Sunda chai and 
Macassar djai. Frontal abrasion yields asi in the Solomon Islands, Ulawa, 
Wango, Fagani, Saa, Alite, and Bululaha, and asing in Sanguir. The Bpi 
si is another step in such abrasion readily reached through its tsi form. 
The gasi of Tidore, Gani, and Galela smacks of the palatalization of t now 
affecting Samoa. 
The Arabic is a resemblance. 

353- 
tlko, a staff, a walking-staff, a pole by which a canoe is poled forward in 
shallow water. 

Nukuoro: tokotoko, a pole. Tonga: toko, a canoe-pole, to punt; 
tokonaki, to rest the hand on an3rthing. Futuna : toko, a canoe- 
pole, to punt; tokotoko, a long staff, a cane; tokoi, to support. 
Niue : toko, a prop, to support ; tokotoko, a staff. Uvea : tokotoko, 
a staff; tokoni, to support, to prop. Maori: toko, a pole, to 
punt ; tokotoko, to support oneself with a stick. Marquesas : 
totoko, to prop up with a stick ; tokotoko, a stick, a cane. Manga- 
reva : toko, the pole of a raft, to punt ; tokotoko, a stick. Rapanui, 
Paumotu: tokotoko, a walking-stick. Samoa: to'o, a canoe- 
pole, to punt a canoe; to'oto'o, a staff, a walking-stick; to'onai, 
to lean upon a staff or anything for support. Tahiti : too, a 
canoe-pole; tootoo, a staff or walking-stick, to punt. Hawaii: 
koo, to punt; kookoo, a staff. 

Viti: ndoko, a punting-pole ; toko, a prop, a pole to boom out the 
sail; tokona, to prop up. Rotuma: oi-tok, staff. 

Mota : tigo, a pole ; tigonag, to pole a canoe ; tigotigo, to use a walking- 
stick. Malo : tiko, a walking-stick. 

Malay: takan, a staff. Kacassar: tokong, to push with a pole, 
Malay: tongkat, a walking-stick. Tagalog: tungcod, id. 

Pampangas: tucud, id. Malagasy: tehina, a staff; mitehina, 
to walk with a staff, to walk leaning on a person. 

Arabic: toka'at, a staff, a support, he who leans much on his side 
and props himself up. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is tokon. 

The primal signification is the verbal one of supporting or propping. 
This is made clear in Rotuma oi-tok, oi tree, tok to support, hence a staff. 

In Melanesia the three identifications agree upon the vowel change to 
tiko, and Mota preserves the radical n. 

In Indonesia the Malay takan and Macassar tokong are satisfactorily 
associated with tokon, and Malagasy tehina lags only a pace behind. But 
Malay tongkat and the similar forms in Tagalog and Pampangas are not 
readily reconcilable. 

The Arabic shows no trace of the radical n, and in added material differs 
from tokon to such an extent that we may not accept it as a resemblance. 



DATA AND NOTES. 421 

354- 
tiri, riri, to fly; lea ki, to toss away, to throw down, to sweep, to drive 
away (as the wind trees) ; leleaki, intensive. 

Samoa : lele, to fly; jelelei, id. ; lelea, to be driven off or carried away 
by the wind; talele, to escape quickly; fetulele, a shooting star; 
the root le seems to appear in leangiangi, an eminence exposed 
to the breeze. Nuguria : ele, to fly soaring. Nukuoro : lele, 
to leap, to jump; manulele, a bird. Tonga: le, to drive, to 
affright fish into the net with a rod; lele, to run; lelea, to be 
wind-driven; fakalele, to make a cast of birds, to fly a kite; 
leleaki, leleekina, to run with; malele, to run. Futuna: lele, 
to run swiftly, to fly; lelea, to be wind-driven. Niue: lele, 
to fl}'^, to flow (as water) . Uvea : lele, to fly, to run. Hawaii : 
lele, to fly, to jump, to leap, to move swiftly, to move as a 
meteor through the air; lelele, to leap, to jump, to fly quickly; 
lelelele, to run off in haste. Maori: rere, to run (as water), 
to fly, to flee, to sail, to leap, to go swiftly. Tahiti: rere, to 
fly, to leap. Rapanui: rere, to fly; vae rere, to run; hakarere, 
to abandon, to abjure. Mangareva : rere, to fly, to leap ; irere, 
to run. Rarotonga: rere, to fly, to flee. Moriori: rere, to 
run (as water), to fly. Paumotu: rere, to fly, to soar, to leap. 
Fotuna : rere, lele, to fly. Marquesas : ee, to go, to go away ; 
eepau, to leap; hee, to fly, to soar. 

Viti: lele, to pass or go a short journey; lelele, a ferry canoe. 
Rotuma: ferefere, to fly. 

Motu: lele, to swim (as a fish). Mota: rere, set of sea, current. 

Malay: leleh, to flow. 

Arabic : tdra, to fly, to be swift, to move quickly. 

In the present phase of Polynesian lele so much means to fly that the 
plainest way of particularizing birds is to describe them as the flying animals, 
manulele. But it is manifest that flight, an exercise or balancing of wings, 
was by no means the primordial sense, for how could that give rise to a 
description of water in the water-courses? It will be well to mass the 
several significations which lele exhibits. 

Flight of birds: Samoa, Nukuoro, Tonga, Futuna, Niue, Uvea, Hawaii, 

Tahiti, Mangareva, Maori, Rarotonga, Moriori, Paumotu, Rapanui, 

Fotuna, Efate. 
Wind driven: Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Efate. 
Meteors: Samoa, Hawaii. 
To leap: Nukuoro, Hawaii, Maori, Tahiti, Mangareva, Paumotu, 

Marquesas. 
To run: Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Uvea, Hawaii, Maori, Mangareva, 

Rarotonga, Rapanui. 
Flow of water: Niue, Maori, Moriori, Mota, Malay. 
To swim: Motu. 
To sail: Maori, Viti. 
These several activities are exercised in earth, air, and water. The 
common factor is the swift motion. The means of motion cut no figure. 



422 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

It is an invisible means in the driving of the wind, the flash of the meteor 
silent athwart the sky on its lethal errand, the slip and slide of the stream in 
its deep course, the set of the sea, the gliding of the canoe upon its surface. 
Samoa, Tonga, and Efate use the unduplicated stem and establish it 
firmly. Therefore the Arabic tdra is not acceptable despite its resemblance 
to the single Ef at6 form tiri, a dialectic mutation of riri. 

355- 

titiro, to gaze into the sea looking for fish or molluscs, to look at oneself 
in water or a mirror. 

Samoa: tilotilo, to peep, to spy; tio, sharp looking (of the eyes). 
Nukuoro: tiro, to see. Tonga: jio, to look, to stare; jiojio, 
to gaze, to stare about; fakajio, to peep, to look, to stare, to 
spy, to pry; kilo, to look askant; kikilo, to look from side to 
side. Futuna: tilo, to gaze, to look with an optical instru- 
ment; tiloika, to watch for fish; tiloata, to look at oneself in 
any reflecting surface ; tio, to see, to look at, to observe, to spy. 
Maori : tiro, to look, to look at ; tirotiro, to gaze around, to look 
about, to investigate. Tahiti: titiromatatia, to gaze, to look 
steadfastly, to cast a lustful look. Hawaii : kilo, to look ear- 
nestly at a thing ; kilokilo, to examine carefully ; hookilo, to spy. 
Mangaia : tiro, to look. Rapanui : titiro, to admire. Atiu : 
titiro, to look at. Marquesas: tiohi, id. Mangareva: tiho, 
to examine, to regard attentively; matiro, to examine. Mana- 
hiki: titi tiro, to see. Fotuna: jironga, a looking-glass. 

Viti : tirova, to look at oneself in water, to peep at ; titiro, a viewing 
indistinctly. 

Buka : tara, tarra, to see. Santo : titiro, a looking-glass. Mota : 
tiro, clear; tironin, to look into a pool or mirror. 

Macassar: tiro, to spy. Malagasy: taratra,tarafina, to look, to gaze. 

Arabic : nat'ara, to gaze, to look for, to consider, to spy. 

Polynesian discloses three stems here, tio, tilo, and kilo. The kilo form 
is found in Tonga only, for Hawaii kilo is the kappation of tilo and kilo 
would have passed into the northern speech as ilo under its normal loss 
of the true k. Tilo has a Proto-Samoan stem tilof, sufficient to preclude 
the inclusion in this series of the open ilo, iloa, to see, to know. Tio has a 
Proto-Samoan stem tiof, therefore it is well established as a derivative of 
tilof, although the process of internal loss is quite rare in Polynesian except 
when a letter is wholly discarded regardless of position. The Tongan 
vocabulary shows no protected form of kilo whereby we might determine 
its earlier stem. The sense of looking at oneself in water or in the lately 
introduced mirror is found in Samoa, Futuna, Viti, Fotuna, Efat^, Santo, 
and Mota. 

Though scanty, our Melanesian and Indonesian identifications are 
satisfactory. 

The Arabic stems in ntr, the Polynesian in trf , and these are by no means 
in accord. 



DATA AND NOTES. 423 

356. 
toa, towa, to', a domestic fowl, a bird. 

Moiki: toa, a fowl. Samoa: toa, a cock. Rapanui: moa, toa, id. 

Viti: toa, a fowl. 

Sesake, Epi, Arag, Mota, Malo, Marina, Gog, Omba: toa, a fowl. 
Ambrym, Malekula, Lakon, Norbarbar, Pak, Sasar, Vuras, 
Mosin, AIo Teqel, Motlav, Lo : to, id. Ulawa, Fagani, Bululaha, 
Alite, Wango, Saa: kua, id. Santo: toa, a bird. Baki: ju, 
a fowl. Bierian: so, id. 

Malay: ay am, a bird. Ceram: tofl, towim, id. Buru: tehui, 
teput, id. 

Hebrew: 'of, bird. Arabic: 'a'f, a fowl. 

The solitary instance in Polynesian of toa a fowl in place of the common 
moa is in Moiki, an island of the western verge. This is balanced by 
Rotuma moa a cock. Of the Viti toa Hazlewood makes the note "a vosa 
m.aivei beka na toa — where in the world does this word toa come from?" 
As toa and to the word is abundantly established in the New Hebrides, a 
sufficient answer to this question. Bierian so may be regarded as a to- 
derivative, and Bald pi argues a ^w variant of to. This suggest a tiia, from 
which we might derive kvn in the Solomon Islands ; unfortunately the t-k 
mutation, though common enough elsewhere, finds little confirmation in 
these languages. 

Not one of the Indonesian identifications seems to bear any relation to toa. 

Dr. Macdonald would have found his task easier if he had essayed to 
prove Dame Partlet of Rotuma a mother in Israel, for in that language the 
hen is uof. Certainly his Semitic offerings suggest no kinship v/ith toa. 

357- 
toko, to rest, to sit down, to dwell, to remain, to be. 

Samoa: to'a, to subside, to settle down, to coagulate. Uvea: toka, 
to fall; totoka, to coagulate, to curdle. Tonga: toka, to lie 
down, to be, sediment. Futuna: toka, to fall, to lie down. 
Niue: toka, to remain. Maori: totoka, to congeal. 

Viti: tiko, to sit, to be (of persons); toka, to stand, to be placed 
(chiefly of things inanimate) ; toka levu, to sit with arms and 
legs abroad as one in pain. 

Mota: toga, to abide. Volow: tonga, id. Arag: dogo, to sit. 
Sesake: toko, ndoko, id. Nifilole: togoli, id. Mosin: toga, 
to abide; tog, to stay with. Fagani: 'oga, to stay. Pak: 
'o, 'oga, to abide. Wango : 'o'a, to stay. Merlav, Lo : tog, 
to abide. Gog: to^, to live at. Vuras, Marina : tog, to stay. 
Maewo : tog, to sit ; togana, togaana, a sitting. Norbarbar, Ugi : 
to, to stay. Nggela : to, to sit. Retan : ta, to stay. Sesake : 
to, ndo, to be, to abide, to sit. Ambrym : dro, dru, to abide ; 
ro, to sit, to stay, to remain. 

Malay, Java: dodok, duduk, to sit, to be. Malagasy: tuatra, id. 

Hebrew : takah, to sit, to remain. 

We find the word limited by Nuclear Polynesia and the direct migration 
thence to New Zealand. 



424 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Our Melanesia!! identificatio!!S are so abundant that it has been possible 
to arrange them in a very satisfactory chain of form development, and the 
several threads of meaning interlace and bind the whole. 

The Malay and Java identifications are satisfactory; the Malagasy, in 
the absence of transition phases, somewhat less so. 

The Hebrew is a resemblance. 

358. 

tu, tsu, su, ru, to stand, to abide, to dwell, to be; tu-ri, to stand, to abide 
with; tu-rakl, to stand or abide for. 

Samoa: tu, to stand, to arise; tiila, a locality or habitat; tula, a 
pigeon perch; tula'i, tuiula'i, to rise up, to stand up. Nuguria: 
tu, to stand. Tonga: tuu, to stand, to rise; tuula, a bird 
roost. Rapanui: hakatuu, to erect, to hnild. Futuna: tuu, 
to stand, to arise, to be situated or placed ; tuulanga, post, sta- 
tion, place of residence; tuidaki, to arise, to stand up. Nine: 
tu, tutu, to stand; tuulupou, ground plates of a house. Uvea: 
tutuu, tuulaki, to stand ; tuu, to arise. Nukuoro, Fotuna : tu, 
to stand. Moiki : tu, to stand, to abide. Maori : tu, to stand ; 
tunga, a standing place ; ttiranga, time, place or circumstance of 
standing. Tahiti: tu, to stand erect, upright. Rarotonga: 
tu, to stand, to arise. Marquesas: tu, to stand, to remain 
fixed. Mangareva: tu, being, essential, to be the essence of, 
to be upright, to stand up; turanga, a site, standing place. 
Hawaii: ku, to arise, to stand erect; kulana, a place in a fort 
where the men stand to throwtheir spears ; kulanahale,avi].lage. 

Viti : tu, to arise, to stand, to be ; tura, vakatura, viritu, to cause to 
stand, to place ; tutu, a stand, a place or thing to stand on. 

Tangoan Santo, Malo, Duke of York, Raluana: turu, to stand. 
Nggela: tuguru, id. Maewo: tura, id. Fagani, Wango: 
'ura, id. Saa: 'tire, id. Marina: turi, id. Mota, Vuras, 
Merlav, Gog, Pala, Baravon : tur, id. Lambell : itiir, id. ; kamtur, 
to stand up. Lamassa: itur, to stand; kaptilr, to stand up. 
King : itiir, to stand ; ikatutur, to stand up. Matupit : tut, to 
arise; wa-tut-pa, to make to rise. Vaturanga, Deni, Sesake, 
Lo, Omba, Maewo : tu, to stand. Malekula : tu,, tutu, id. Motu : 
tutuka-tutuka, to stand firm, to be steady. Sesake: ndu, to 
stand. Retan: tir, id. Tanna: {t)utul, id. Baki: jumolu, id. 
Bierian: mtumau, id. Volow: tig, id. Norbarbar: ti, id. 

Malay: diri, to stand; kukuh, stable, firm. Malagasy: juru, id. 

Hebrew: nasa', so', s'et, to stand. Bthiopic: nasa'a, id. Arabic: 
nas'a', id. 

Exactly at this point a note is proper as to the substantive verb, for one 
of its most frequent substitutes is the sit of the preceding item, the other 
is the stand of the present item. To the Polynesian and to the Melanesian 
has come no concept of bare existence ; he sees no need to say of himself 
"I am," always "I am doing," "I am suffering." It is hard for the stranger 
of alien culture to relinquish his nude idea of existence and to adopt the 
island idea; it is far more difficult to acquire the feeling of the language 



DATA AND NOTES. 425 

and to accomplish elegance in the diction under these unfamiliar conditions. 
Take for an illustrative example these two sentences from the Viti : 

Sa tiko na tamata e kila: there are (sit) men who know. 
Sa tu mai vale na yau: the goods are (stand) in the house. 

The use of tu for tiko and of tiko for tu would not produce incomprehensi- 
bility, but it would entail a loss of finish in diction, it would stamp the 
speaker as vulgar, as a white man. 

Again there is a use of these verbs as auxiliaries to some principal verb 
in a fashion that is yet more difficult to grasp. Sa lako tu and sa lako tiko, 
both "he is going." But sa lako tu suggests "he is going here in plain 
sight" ; and sa lako tiko "he go-sits," to employ a barbarism in a speech of 
culture representative of an elegance in a barbaric speech, produces the 
sense "he is going steadily on and on." 

Savage life is far too complex ; it is only in rich civilization that we can 
rise to the simplicity of elemental concepts. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is tul. 

In Pol5rnesia the only variant is Hawaii ku, the common kappation. 

In Melanesia our identifications fall into groups as representing tul, tu, 
tutu, and til. Turu, tura, 'ura, turi, 'uri, tur are the representatives of the tul 
group, and probably to be associated with this is Tanna tutul. Tu, the 
common Polynesian type, is found in Melanesia at scattered points, Efat6, 
Vaturanga, Deni, Sesake, Lo, Omba, Maewo, and Malekula; and the two 
Epi forms, Baki jumolu and Bierian mtumau, seem to be te-composites. 
Tutu, the normal duplication, is found only in Malekula; Motu has a 
tutuka, a tutu enlarged and then duplicated in a manner which a true Poly- 
nesian would never tolerate. An interesting form is Matupit tut, tu dupli- 
cated and then abraded. The stem with vowel change, til, occurs but three 
times and in a very narrowly restricted area of two small islands in the 
north of the Banks Group. Retan tir is clearly the simple stem and 
Norbarbar ti stands to til as tu to tul. But Volow tig is anomalous; the 
same anomaly is found in Nggela tuguru. 

We have but two Indonesian identifications. Malagasy juru is of the 
more usual type; Malay diri reestablishes the til stem just under discus- 
sion. It is uncertain whether the kappation is sufficiently well established 
in Malay to cover kukuh as a tutu equivalent. 

The Semitic offered here, ns' stem, can have no relationship with tul or til. 

359- 
turua, full of holes (as a rock through which water percolates) ; tuturu, to 
drip (as eaves), to leak (of a roof); tuturu, a drop, dripping; 
turu-ki, to drip or leak through; tirikit, to begin to drop or 
spatter (of rain) . 
Samoa: tutulu, to leak (of a roof), to weep (language of ceremony); 
tulutulu, the eaves of a house; fa'atulutulu, to cause to drop; 
tului, to drop a thing into; tuluvao, the drops from the trees 
after rain. Tonga: tulutulu, to drop, to drip, to let in water, 
the eaves; tutulu, to fall in drops, leaky; tuluta, a single drop, 
a tear ; mokulu, to fall as tears ; tului, to drop into the eye or 
into a wound. Futuna : tutulu, to fall drop by drop ; tului, 



426 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

to drop into the eye or into a wound; tulu, tulutulu, to drip; 

tulutulu, the eaves. Nukuoro : turuturu, to fall in drops : haka- 

tulu, to pour out. Fotuna: turu, to leak, to drip. Maori: 

tuturu, to leak, to drip ; maturuturu, to fall in drops, to distil. 

Rapanui: turu, to flow, to drip. Tahiti: tuturu, to drop, as 

rain from a roof. Hawaii: kulu, a drop, to drop, to leak. 
Viti : turu, the eaves ; turu, tuturu, tiri, titiri, a drop, to drop ; turuva, 

tiriva, to drop upon. 
Motu: hetuturu, to drop (as water). Malekula: turitur, to leak, 

to drip. Malo: tuture, id. Baki: mbari-drudruli, id. Mota: 

tir, to drip, to drop. 
Malay: jurus, to water, to irrigate. 
Arabic : s'alla, to sew, to shed tears ; s'als'ala, to drip, to fall in drops ; 

was'ala, to drip, to drop, to leak out. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is tulu. 

This is well established by the recurrence of tului in which the verb- 
formative i is, as always, added to the stem and avails to preserve a final 
radical consonant if the stem is a closed one. This leaves the v in Viti 
turuva, tiriva, non-radical but to be explained in the constructive local 
usage of that speech. 

The vowel change u-i, found slightly in 358, here occurs in Viti, Efate.and 
Mota. A similar change affecting the weak unaccented final vowel gives 
us a turi stem in Malekula, ture in Malo, and the Baki composite is tuli 
with a reinforcement of the initial mute. In Efatd tirikit, tin compounds 
with kit (149) small. 

The Malay jurus, accepting the common t-j mutation and assuming that 
the final s has the appropriate construction value, suggests kinship with 
turu; but we can not definitely accept the identification on such slight data 
as against the considerable variation in sense. 

The Semitic and the island tongues have an I in common, far too little 
on which to build an argument. 

360. 
ua, ueti, boua, fruit. 

Samoa, Tonga, Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Fotuna, Moiki : fua, fruit. Sika- 
yana : fua, an egg. Nuguria : hua, fruit, egg ; te hua te rakau, 
blossom. Maori, Hawaii, Nukuoro: hua, fruit. Aniwa: 
no-hua, id. Rapanui: huaa, fruit, to bloom, to blossom. 
Rarotonga: ua, id. 

Viti: vua, fruit. Rotuma: hue, id. 

Modnus: mbiia, fruit. Eromanga: hwwa, id. Uni, Pokau: vua, id. 
Alite, Nggela: i;Moi;Ma, id. Pokau : •vMa-ywa, flower. Kabadi: 
ovaovana, id. Rubi : o-wwawtto, id. Vaturanga : T^Mt/wa, fruit. 
Baravon : ■DMei, to bear fruit. New Britain: ■z;Me, id. '[Mekeo: 
pua, ira.it. Hula, Keapara,Galoma: 6mo, id. Roro: 6Mawa,''id. 
Rubi: guagua, id. Fagani: fua, id. Ulawa, Saa, Wango, 
Doura, Bululaha: hua, id. Motu: huahua, id. Aneityum: 
howa, id. Buka: hoa, id. Dobu, Taupota, Kubiri, Galavi: 
ua, id. Suau: uaua, id. Mukawa: uwa, id. Taupota, 



DATA AND NOTES. 427 

Wedau, Awalama, Galavi : iuwa, id. Tubetube : uwe, id. Duke 
of York: ua, to bear fruit. Malekula Pangkumu: mi uan, 
fruit. Sesake: wa, id. Tanna: wowa, id. Nifilole : «wa, id. 
Deni, Marina: va, id. Norbarbar: wo, id. Mota: woai.'id. 
Arag, Omba, Duke of York: ivai, id. Merlav, Gog, Motlav: 
we, id. Lakon: wehi, id. Mosin: weegi, id. Pak: wewegi, id. 
Sasar, AloTeqel: woze'e^i, id. Yolow: wenen, id. Lo:m», id. 
Vuras: wie, id. Ambrym: ui, id. Maewo: oi, id. 

Salibabo : buwah, fruit. Bugi : buwa, id. Malay : buah, id. Salayer, 
Menado, Borneo, Liang, Baju : bua, id . Amblaw, Sanguir : buani, 
id. Cajeli: buan,vA. Ahtiago: uan,\6.. Mayapo, Massaratty: 
fuan,\6.. Teor:/MW, id. Teluti, Wahai: fewaw, id. Morella: 
hvAi, id . Caimarian : huwai, id . Java :woh,i6.. Gah : woya, id . 

Aramaic: /era, /tra, to bear fruit. Hebrew: peri, para, id. 

With this stem we should collate pua, of cognate meaning. 

Maori: pua, a flower, a seed, to blossom. Tahiti: piia, to blossom. 
Hawaii: pua, a flower, to blossom. Mangaia: puu, to blossom. 
Mangareva: pua, a flower, to bloom. Marquesas : j/>Ma, a 

flower, to blossom. Paumotu: pua, a flower. 

We should also collate funga (246). 

In Sesake we find the funga stem doing duty for blossom and for fruit. 
In Indonesia we find funga in the fruit sense in Sulu, Tagalog, Ilocan, 
Magindano, all Philippine tongues. This suffices to prove that funga and 
fua were by some regarded as sufficiently akin to allow the sense of fua to 
pass to funga. 

So too of pua and fua. While the sense of pua is that of flowering, where- 
ever it is fotmd, the Maori is proof that it could have the fua fruit sense as 
well. So far as we can now discover pua is an open stem, but its occurrence 
is altogether in the Tongafiti area, a later stage of the language, so that this 
is not conclusive. 

And fua itself is susceptible of both senses. This comes to the surface 
in Buka, where hoa is fruit and ua blossom. We find the confusion of mean- 
ings also in Samoa, Maori. There is reason to infer that the Proto-Samoan 
stem is fuat, but this does not necessarily militate against stem identity 
with pua. 

The data are so assembled in the foregoing collation as to indicate the 
gradual deviation from the primal stem. The identity is found of con- 
siderable extent in Indonesia. 

The Semitic forms proposed are clearly xmcoordinate. 

361. 

uango, uak, pig, swine ; bwakas, bwokas, a pig (not boar or sow) specially 
reared and esteemed for its flesh. 
Tonga : buaka, a pig. Futuna, Nine, Uvea, Nukuoro, Vate, Raro- 
tonga, Mangareva: puaka, id. Rapanui: puaka, beast, animal, 
but not pig. Samoa: pua' a, a pig, swine, animals in general. 
Maori: poaka, a pig. Tahiti, Marquesas, Hawaii: ptiaa, id. 
Aniwa, Fotuna: pakasi, id. 



428 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Viti: vuaka, vore, a pig. Rotuma: puaka, id. 

New Georgia: boako, pig. Lifu, Nengone: puaka, id. Tanna: 
puka', a pig, to grunt. Epi Bierian : bukahi, a pig. Sesake : 
bokasi, flesh. Eromanga : mpokas, a pig. Aneityum : pigath, id. 
Kabadi, Motu: boroma, id. Masig: boromo, id. Motu: 

buruma,i6i. Kunini: 6/ome, id. Miriam : fcorow, id. Mabuiag: 
burum, id. Pokau: boloma, id. Uni: buluma, id. Sariba, 
Murua: buruka, id. Nada: buruku, id. Kiriwina: bunuka, id. 
Lambell, Lamassa, Baravon: boroi, id. King, Tavara, Awa- 
lama, Taupota, Wedau, Galavi, Boniki, Mukawa, Duke of York : 
boro, id. Nggela : mfcoZo, animal, beast, pig. Savo: polo, -pig. 
Koto: aiporo, id. Kubiri, Raqa, Kiviri, Oiun : /oro, id. Uni: 
foloma, id. Bugotu: botho, id. Nggao: bosu, id. Pala: 
bore, id. Laur: mbor, id. Solomon Islands: boa, id. Tube- 
tube: />oa/o, id. Natalava: 6oa/o, id. New Ireland (Carteret 
Harbor): bouri, id. Moanus: pou, id. Fagani: boo, id. New 
Ireland (Duffield) : bogh, id. Alite: bo, id. Brierly Island, 
Tubetube, Tagula : fco&o, id. Panaieti, Misima: fco&w, id. Rua- 
vatu:6e, id. Ugi, Ulawa, Wango, Bululaha : />o, id. Malo: 
boi, id. Marina, Nifilole: poc, id. Ambrym, Epi Baki: 
bue, id. Deni: mpoi, id. Omba, Maewo: &m6woe, id. Merlav: 
kmpwoe, id. Arag, Mota : kpwoe, id. Motlav, Gog, Norbarbar : 
kifibwo, id. Yoiow. nggmbwo, id. AloTeqel: kmpwo,id. Pak, 
Sasar: fe6wo,id. Eakon, Vuras,Mosrn,Lo: fe/jwo.id. Saa: pwo, 
id. Buka: pum, ngu, patim, apum, id. Sesake: ivango, id. 

Waigiou: bo, pig. Mysot: boh, id. Bum: babue, id. Malay: 
babi, id. 

Arabic: fuka, fudk', fuyoak' , to emit hoarse guttural sounds; fakfaka, 
to bark. 

Both Pratt and Hazlewood, in the Samoan and Viti dictionaries respec- 
tively, credit pua'a and vuaka with derivation from and corruption of 
English pork. They little knew the extent of this ancient island word. 
To show that I am not alone in my view I cite Mr. Tregear's interesting 
note (Maori- Polynesian Comparative Dictionary, s. v. poaka) : 

This word (generally supposed to be a corruption of the English word porker) is 
genuine Polynesian. It was probably received by the Maoris from the Tahitian inter- 
preter of Captain Cook, although the passage in Vol. ii, p. 372, of Cook's Voyages, ed. 
1793, urges that the Maoris already knew the word. It is possible that the Maoris had 
kept a traditional knowledge of the animal, just as in some smaller Polynesian islands 
the natives called the dog kuri at sight, although the animal was not to be found amongst 
them. The hogs were numerous in Tahiti, Hawaii, etc., before the arrival of the Euro- 
peans, and the native hog appears to have been of a different species from the imported 
breed. In the Hervey Group pigs were found on Atiu and Rarotonga, but not on the 
neighboring islands of Mangaia and Aitutaki. However, at Mangaia, districts known 
as pa-puaka (hog-pen) and puaka-ngunguru (grunting hog) are names in evidence of 
the pig having once been known on the island. 

In the Melanesian area we find at least three stems. Of one the full stem 
is pakasi, as found at Aniwa and Fotuna. Sesake bokasi and Bierian 
bukahi are but slight deviations therefrom. The first alteration is the 



DATA AND NOTES. 429 

abrasion of the final vowel, yielding Eromanga mpokas, Bfate bwakas and 
bwokas; and Aneityiim pigath derives from this stage. The second altera- 
tion is abrasion of the then final consonant yielding Tanna puka'. The 
Efate bwakas affords the transition phase to the puaka type of Polynesia in 
general, which is found in Lifu and Nengone (yet possibly a direct intro- 
duction by Samoan missionaries) and in boako of New Georgia. Efat^ 
uango, uak, Sesake wango, derive from ptiaka by frontal abrasion and k-ng 
mutation. 

The next stem is boro. In New Guinea we encounter boro with w-accre- 
tion, Kabadi boroma, Motu buruma, Miriam borom. As boro the stem is 
found in the eastern gateway, New Britain, Duke of York, New Ireland, 
in boroi, boro, mbolo, polo, boalo, bouri, botho, bosu, mbor. 

The third stem is po. This appears in a wide range of forms. It is not 
beyond probability that po may be an attrition form of boro. The Laur 
mbor, in a district adjacent to boro forms, and the Solomon Island boa may 
provide transition phases leading to po. 

The forms found in Buka are not susceptible of derivation from any of 
these three forms. 

In Indonesia Waigiou bo and Mysot boh are satisfactorily identified with 
the Melanesian po-st^ra. The Malay babi, Burn babue, offers a difficulty. 
Codrington (Melanesian Languages, 86) offers Sanguir and Salibabo bawi 
as a transition to boh and bo. 

The Semitic, fk stem, can not be brought into relationship with our 
primal pakasi. 

362. 
ula, a maggot. 

Samoa, Futuna, Hawaii : ilo, a worm or maggot in putrid flesh or 
ulcers. Maori, Tahiti, Mangareva: tVo, id. Fotima: e*Vo, id. 
Viti: uloulo, a maggot. 
Motu: uloulo, a maggot. Mota, Malo: ulo, id. Baki: ilo, id. 

Malekula: na-uru, id. 
Malay: ulat, a maggot. Malagasy: ulitra, id. 
Ethiopic: 'es'e, a worm; 'as'ya, to breed worms. 

The identifications are quite satisfactory, the i-u vowel change being well 
established. While the ilo forms are characteristically Polynesian and tdo 
characteristically Melanesian, Baki ilo is a Melanesian occurrence of the 
Pol5mesian form. The Efate ula has the same vowel scheme as Malay ulat. 

The Semitic forms have no possible relation to the island forms. 

363. 
uose, uos, uohe, an oar, a paddle. 

Tonga: fohe, a paddle; taufoe, a rope belonging to the steer oar. 
Nine: fohe, a paddle. Samoa: foe, a paddle; foe foe, to paddle 
briskly. Futuna: foe, an oar, a paddle. Fotuna: foi, id. 
Maori, Tahiti, Marquesas, Nukuoro, Nuguria, Rapanui, Tonga- 
rewa : hoe, a paddle, an oar, to row, to paddle. Mangareva : 
hoe, id. ; ohe, an oar, a paddle. Hawaii : hoe, a paddle; hoehoe, 
to row. 
Viti : vothe, a paddle, to paddle. 



430 THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

King: voso, a paddle. Epi: voho, id. Laur, Lamassa: vos, id. 
Malekula: bos, id. Suau: vose, id. Mugula: wost, id. Sariba: 
wosi, uose, woase, id. Pokau : vode, id. Roro : bote, id. Mekeo : 
poke, id. Kabadi: ode, id. Solomon Islands : /o.ye, id. New 
Ireland (Duffield) : ;^-$'^, id. Buka: hosse, id. Motn: hode, id. 
Pala: ii4sa, id. Mota: wose, id. Awalama, Taupota, Wedau, 
Galavi, Boniki:'yoe,id. Mukawa, Kubiri, Oiun: 6oe,id. Kiviri: 
boi,id. Raqa: 6o/'e,id. Tanna: 'z;ea,id. Aneitjoim : we-ZiCT, id. 

Visayas: btigsai, paddle. Malay: dayung, id. Malagasy: fivui, id. 

Arabic : mikdaf, migdaf, mihdaf , mikdaf, an oar. Amharic : makzaf, 
id. Arabic: "aduf, id. 

The Proto-Samoan stem is fohe, as carried in Tonga and Nine, and oddly 
seen in Mangareva ohe. 

There is a certain agreement in these forms which compares very well 
with the truly remarkable showing of the material offered in item 280. 

In Melanesia we have most commonly the forms in s. The nearest to 
the stem fohe is Solomon Islands fose, Mota wose, Efate uose. A vowel 
change in the unaccented final syllable is shown in King uoso, Epi voho, at 
widely separated points. The f-h mutation from fose 3delds Buka hosse, 
and Motu hode shows still another change. Of the closed stem, an attri- 
tion form, we have vos in Laur and Lamassa, and Duffield's unspecified 
New Ireland vocabulary seems to draw from the same region for the form 
fiss. Makekula yields us bos, and Efate uos. The Aneityum ne-hev is a 
metathesis of some such attrition form, veh. This makes it within the 
limit of possibility that Tanna vea may be included. 

I can see no plan whereby Visayas bugsai can account for its inner palatal 
and therefore become identifiable, and the other Indonesian forms are 
hopelessly remote. 

The Semitic offers no resemblance at all. 

364- 
ura, lobster, prawn. 

Samoa : ula, lobster, prawn, shrimp, crayfish. Eutuna : ida, lobster. 
Rapanui, Nukuoro : ura, prawn, lobster. Mangareva : ura, cray- 
fish. Maori: koura, id. Paumotu: cf. koranihi, prawn. 
Marquesas: koua, crajrfish. Tahiti: oura, prawn. Tonga: 
uo, lobster. Niue: uo, crayiish. 

Viti: ura, prawn. 

Mota, Motu: ura, crayfish. Malekula: na-uru, id. Bierian: 
ni-ua, id. Baki: Uo, id. 

Java: urang, crayfish. Malagasy: twana, id. {itr amir ana, eating 
greedily). Malay: udang, crayfish. 

Hebrew: hawar, to be white, to become pale. Arabic: hara, to 
be bleached, to eat greedily; hawar', haur, red leather. 

Nuclear Polynesia has the simple stem ula; the languages of the Tonga- 
fiti migration have a composite koula, except that Mangareva has the 
Proto-Samoan form. Niue and Tonga have a secondary form uo, not to 
be considered the ordinary elision of the liquid, for both these languages 
make free use of /; this secondary form is discoverable in Bierian. 



DATA AND NOTES. 431 

The Melanesia!! ide!!tifications are satisfactoiy, Baki ilo exhibiting the 
same vowel change as in 362. 

The three Indonesian identifications agree in the accretion of a nasal and 
are satisfactory. 

There is nothing in form and nothing in signification in this Semitic to 
afford suspicion of relationship with ula. 

365. 
uti na, the penis. 

Viti: uti, id. 

New Guinea (Astrolabe Bay) ; uti, id. 

Another root form is quite similar in the same sense and is adjoined for 
comparison. 

Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Nuguria, Hawaii: ule, the penis. Maori, 

Tahiti, Mangareva, Paumotu: ure, id. 
Motu: use, id. New Ireland (Port Praslin) : usik, id. New Ireland 

(Carteret Harbor) : ausidi, id. Pala: us, id. Lamotrek: ul, id. 
Arabic: 'uss', id. 

We have here forms in I, s, t. In the table of mutations we find very 
scanty evidence of l-t mutation, but none at all of l-s. Starting from s we 
find very scanty evidence of s-t mutation, none at all of s-l (s-r resting on 
one unsatisfactory instance) . Starting from / we find considerable proof 
of t-s mutation, and, while t-l does not appear, the similar t-r is fotmd in a 
few cases (see note 258). 

It is, therefore, just possible if we regard uti as the parent form, to make 
a plea for the derivation of use and tile therefrom. Apart from the fact 
that our evidence in support is scanty, we find yet another difficulty. We 
should be put in the position of finding in the Proto-Samoan a secondary 
form, yet in all our material we have found that to be the primary form and 
the Melanesian secondary or loan material. We are not warranted, there- 
fore, in accepting this identification. 

Not having anj'^thing in particular with which to identify it, the mere 
presence of the Semitic here offered cuts no figure. 



APPENDIX II. 
THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



After the compilation of data and completion of the discussion thereof 
in the foregoing work a few additional vocabularies became accessible. 
The data collated therefrom have been incorporated in the proper places 
in Appendix I, but it was found impracticable to make use thereof in the 
several items of discussion. To remedy this omission the necessary check- 
lists are here offered, together with such investigation of this added material 
as seems advisable or likely to prove of interest. 

Two of the items of additional material belong on the Polynesian side 
of this inquiry, the vocabularies of Nuguria and Rapanui, one the most 
distant of the islands of the Polynesian verge measured backward along 
the migration track, the other the last outpost of Polynesian migration in 
the Pacific. The following check-lists will afford access to this material. 
The use of bold-face type serves to distinguish the vocables which are exclu- 
sively Proto-Samoan, those noted in the common type being vocables 
common to the two migration streams ; a single instance in the Rapanui 
list is set off by italic numerals as exclusively Tongafiti. 

Nuguria. 54 58 6i 62 63 64 72 73 78 81 89 91 98 103 

106 113 123 125 126 140 141 142 146 147 149 150 151 153 

154 156 158 159 164 167 168 173 187 190 198 20I 206 208 

209 211 212 215 216 217 219 223 237 239 250 252 253 256 
259 261 263 266 269 271 272 274 275 276 277 278 279 281 
282 283 285 286 290 291 292 294 295 297 298 300 301 307 
308 309 312 315 316 317 318 319 321 322 323 324 325 327 
328 329 330 333 335 336 338 339 340 342 343 344 345 346 
350 352 354 358 360 363 365 

Rapanui. 24 54 58 61 64 73 75 76 80 81 94 103 106 107 

113 118 119 120 122 125 126 128 132 133 135 137 141 142 

143 144 146 148 149 151 153 154 158 159 160 164 i66 167 

168 i-ji 183 184 187 196 197 198 201 205 206 207 208 209 

210 211 212 213 214 215 216 2i8 222 228 229 230 233 234 
238 239 240 241 253 256 258 259 261 263 264 266 267 269 
270 271 272 273 274 275 276 278 281 282 284 285 287 288 
289 290 291 292 293 295 296 297 298 300 301 302 304 305 
306 307 308 312 313 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 
325 326 327 330 332 333 335 336 338 339 342 343 344 346 
347 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 358 359 360 361 363 364 

We shall next examine each of these Polynesian languages for the dis- 
covery of their mutations from the standard of the Proto-Samoan. 

The vocabulary of Nuguria, collected by Dr. Thilenius, is probably not 
standardized as would have been the case if we owed it to some resident 
collector. Accordingly we may attach no particular importance to the 
fact that / and r seem to be used with equal frequency, that f-/ is almost 
as frequent as i-h. In these lists it has been deemed unnecessary to indi- 
cate the data upon which rest the more positively established mutations. 

433 



434 THE POI.YNKSIAN WANDERINGS. 

a-o 6i, 256 e-i 62 o-a 201 u-i 125 

h— 206, 215, 278 

s-f ng-w f-f k-g 113 p-p 

s-h n-Kg 259 f-h k — • 156 p-b 103, 285 

f-i) 91 
Aspiration assumed 159, 275. 

The Rapanui speech diverges from Proto-Samoan in the loss of the true 
aspirate, the mutation of the sibilant to an aspirate, and the mutation of 
f to h. The irregular variants are as follows : 

a-o 61, 233 i-u 321 o-a 137 u-a 125 

l-r 1-/ 141 I-M 154 I — 103, 128 u-o 168 

ng-wg ng-w 125 m-^ 141 

Aspiration assumed 158, 270. 

Rapanui differs markedly in its speech from other languages of eastern 
Polynesia. It carries a far larger element of distinctly Proto-Samoan mate- 
rial ; at the same time it has also a distinctly Tongafiti element, only one 
item of the latter, however, being involved in the material here assembled. 
The tradition is clear that Rapanui was peopled by a migrant race, said 
to have come from a land in the east where periodical droughts killed the 
vegetation, and since the time of the settler king there have been 56 
successors. The eastern home is incomprehensible; nothing intervenes 
between Rapanui and the coast of Chili and Peru in that direction, and 
nothing in the ethnography of the races there found can be brought into 
association with the Polynesians of this outlying colony of the South Sea. 
Nor does this tradition fall into accord with the belief, supported by such 
evidence as may exist in geographical names, that Rapanui, Great Rapa, 
was settled from Rapaiti or Rapa the Less. The date of settlement by 
reduction of the royal line counting four to the century is established at 
500 A. D. This antedates by a considerable period the arrival of the Tonga- 
fiti migration in the Pacific. The Tongafiti speech element is proof that 
the Rapanui settlement must have followed the expulsion of the Tongafiti 
from Nuclear Polynesia, an event which we have satisfactorily estabUshed 
as synchronous with the Norman Conquest. The traditional date, there- 
fore, is wholly untrustworthy. The presence of the remarkably large Proto- 
Samoan content in the speech is clear evidence that in the place whence 
the Rapanui colonists emigrated the two migration swarms were inter- 
mingled in peaceful association. No island is now discoverable where the 
language contains the hke proportions of distinctively Proto-Samoan and 
distinctively Tongafiti elements. The only conclusion permissible is that 
Rapanui was peopled by a migration in which the two race elements were 
evenly mixed, therefore a secondary migration from some point of contact 
of the two migrations. 

The remainder of this added material bears with considerable insistence 
upon the station of Motu, which in the foregoing discussion has served as 
the ultimate point in establishment of the Viti Stream of Proto-Samoan 
migration. It is, accordingly, well worth the apparatus of check-Hsts and 
phonetic tables here assembled, the material being associable with that 
presented and discussed in Chapter VII. 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 435 

Awalama 46 74 190 199 217 239 247 254 258 259 265 272 276 290 

297 298 300 306 317 321 324 328 330 336 339 340 350 360 

361 363 

Boniki . . 46 74 187 190 199 217 225 239 249 254 259 265 272 273 

290 300 302 312 313 321 324 328 339 344 350 351 361 363 

Dobu. . . 46 47 74 190 199 207 214 217 239 249 258 276 278 285 

290 297 300 302 306 308 309 313 317 318 321 324 328 329 

330 339 342 344 350 360 
Domara.312 

Doura... 74 217 249 259 265 272 284 291 306 309 312 313 318 324 

330 342 350 360 

Duba 324 

Galavi. . . 46 74 149 199 217 225 239 249 254 259 265 272 273 282 

290 297 312 313 321 324 328 339 340 344 350 360 361 363 

Galoma. . 46 47 74 109 122 149 187 190 206 217 247 249 254 265 

276 284 285 290 291 292 294 298 306 308 312 313 317 321 

324 328 330 334 335 346 351 360 

Hula. ... 46 47 74 109 122 149 187 190 214 217 247 249 265 276 

290 291 292 294 298 306 308 312 313 317 321 324 328 330 

334 335 340 346 349 35 i 360 

Kabadi.. 46 47 59 74 122 149 214 247 249 254 258 259 265 266 

272 290 291 292 294 298 300 308 309 312 313 317 321 324 

330 335 336 350 351 360 361 363 

Keakalo.312 338 

Keapara. 46 47 74 122 149 187 190 206 214 217 247 249 254 265 

272 284 285 290 291 292 294 297 298 306 308 312 313 317 

321 324 328 330 334 335 346 349 351 360 

Kinwina 47 74 109 149 187 190 212 214 217 225 239 273 276 285 

290 291 294 300 302 306 308 309 312 313 317 318 321 324 

328 329 330 339 340 344 350 361 

Kiviri... 59 74 190 199 217 225 249 278 282 285 297 300 306 312 

313 321 324 328 330 339 340 344 350 351 361 363 
Kiwai . . . 340 
Koita. . .217 
Koko-Yimidir 340 

Kubiri.. 74 217 225 249 278 282 300 302 306 312 313 316 317 321 

324 328 330 339 340 344 351 360 361 363 
Kunini. .361 

Kwagila.190 291 297 313 324 330 350 

Mabuiag. 46 76 218 340 344 361 
Mailu. . .312 
Masig. . .361 

Massim..268 291 318 

Mekeo. . . 46 74 109 190 206 207 214 217 247 254 259 272 276 290 

292 294 306 309 312 313 318 321 324 328 335 336 339 342 

350 360 363 

Miriam.. 64 76 361 (Murray Island, page 99) 

Misima. . 47 109 190 199 217 247 259 291 297 308 312 321 324 328 

330 342 350 351 361 

Mugula..i90 199 212 247 290 291 294 298 313 324 330 340 344 350 

363 

Mukawa. 46 74 19° 199 206 217 225 239 247 249 259 273 276 285 

298 300 302 306 312 313 316 317 324 328 330 335 336 339 
340 344 350 351 360 361 363 

Murua...i49 190 199 217 239 247 273 276 285 290 291 300 302 306 

308 309 312 317 318 321 324 328 339 350 361 

Nada 109 149 190 199 212 217 225 239 247 273 276 290 291 302 

306 308 309 312 313 317 318 324 328 330 333 339 340 342 

344 350 351 361 

Oiun 59 74 149 187 190 199 217 225 249 258 282 297 298 306 

313 317 321 324 336 339 340 344 350 361 

Panaieti. 47 74 109 190 214 217 225 239 247 249 259 291 292 308 

309 312 313 321 324 328 330 350 361 

Pokau... 46 59 74 109 122 149 190 206 207 214 217 247 249 258 

259 265 273 284 285 291 292 298 306 308 309 312 313 317 

321 324 330 339 340 346 350 351 360 361 363 



436 THE POIvYNKSIAN WANDERINGS. 

Raqa 74 190 199 217 225 249 282 298 317 321 324 328 336 339 

340 344 350 361 363 

Roro. . . . 46 74 122 190 206 214 217 239 247 249 254 259 272 276 

290 291 292 298 300 306 308 309 312 313 321 324 328 335 

336 339 346 350 361 363 

Rubi. ... 46 109 187 190 199 217 247 249 265 276 278 284 285 290 

292 298 306 312 313 317 321 324 328 334 339 349 35i 360 

Sariba... 46 74 109 149 190 199 212 217 239 247 249 258 265 272 

276 278 285 290 291 294 298 313 321 324 328 329 330 339 

340 361 363 

Sinaugoro46 47 74 109 122 187 190 214 217 247 249 265 276 285 

290 291 292 298 306 312 313 317 318 321 324 328 330 333 

334 335 338 346 349 35i 

Suau. ... 46 74 149 190 199 207 212 217 239 247 249 258 265 276 

278 290 291 292 294 298 302 313 317 318 321 324 330 339 

„ 344 350 360 363 

Tagula..i9o 212 217 247 258 259 294 302 312 313 324 336 361 

Taupota. 46 74 190 199 217 225 239 254 259 265 272 282 290 291 

297 298 300 302 306 312 313 317 321 324 328 330 336 339 
340 344 350 360 361 363 

Tavara. . 46 74 190 199 206 217 258 259 265 272 291 297 300 312 

„ 313 321 324 328 336 339 350 361 

Tubetube 46 74 149 190 206 212 217 247 249 258 290 291 292 294 

298 300 302 313 317 318 321 324 330 340 360 361 

Uni 46 217 259 265 272 284 290 291 292 312 313 317 321 324 

336 339 342 346 360 361 

Wagawaga 74 217 290 

Waima. .47 308 312 321 335 344 346 

Wedau.. 46 74 109 190 199 206 217 225 239 247 254 258 259 265 

272 276 282 290 291 297 300 302 306 308 313 317 321 324 

328 336 338 339 340 344 350 351 360 361 363 

Yaraikana 340 



TH^ SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 437 

We shall next develop the phonetic variety of these languages in a 
series of tables such as we have employed for other Melanesian speech 
in Chapter VII. 

AWALAMA. 

a a, i, o 
e e 

i i, a, e, o u u, o 

\ I, r, n 
ng n, g, m n n, g, h mm 

h /, - 
s h, — 

V g 
i V, w 
k h, — t t, d, h, — p p, b 

a-a 46, 74, 199, 217, 239, 258, k-h 297 

265, 276, 290, 300, 317, 324, k— 46, 258, 306 

339, 350, 360 n-n 46, 74, 259, 290, 317, 330 

&-i 328 n-g 254 

a-o 199, 258, 291 n-h 328 

e-e 190, 276, 290, 363 h-t 339 

i-i 46, 259, 290, 291, 298, 300, h— 363 

350 s-h 239 

i-a 254 s — 298 

i-e 254, 330 t-t 74, 199, 258, 306, 324, 350 

i-o 254 t-d 276 

0-0 247, 259, 336, 363 t-h 247 

u-u 74, 239, 247, 258, 265, 298, t— 217 

306, 317, 321, 330, 360 mm 217, 258, 265, 317, 321, 324, 

u-0 328 328 

l-l 339 \-g 291 

l-r 297 f-v 363 

In 265, 336, 350 i-w 254, 259, 290, 360 

ng-n 336 p-p 190 

ng-g 350 p-6 247 

ng-m 199 

Identical 317, 324 

Vowel identity 46, 217, 265 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 239, 259, 276, 290, 306, 350, 363 

Frontal abrasion 46, 306, 321 

Frontal accretion 190, 239, 298, 360 

Terminal accretion 190, 247, 254, 300, 321, 330, 336, 339 

Metathesis 360 



438 THE POI.YNBSIAN WANDERINGS. 



BONIKI. 

a a, e, i, o 
e e, a, u o 0, e 
i i, a, o U u, 

ng n, m n n, k, — mm 

1 /, n, — 
h 
s s, — 

V 

f V, w, p, k 
k fe t t, m p 6 

a-a 46, 74, 199, 217, 239, 265, 1-n 265 

290, 300, 312, 324, 328, 351 1— 312, 350 

a-e 350 ng-« 350 

a-t 350 ng-w 199 

a-o 199 k-fe 46, 225, 249, 351 

e-e 190, 290, 363 n-n 46, 74, 187, 290, 328, 351 

e-a 190, 249, 272 n-k 254 

e-w 187 n— 259 

i-i 46, 249, 273, 290, 300, 312, s-^ 344 

350 s— 239 

i-a 254 t-t 74, 199. 249, 302, 324, 350 

i-o 259 t-w 217 

0-0 187, 363 m-w 217, 265, 312, 321, 324, 328 

O-e 259 f-v 254, 273, 290,1C363 

u-M 74» 239, 265, 272, 273, 302, f-w 290 

321, 344. 350 {-P 193 

U-o 328 f-k 259 

I-/ 225, 272 p-6 193 

Identical 46, 74. 324. 344. 35 1 

Consonant identity. . . .249, 328 

Vowel identity 217, 239, 265, 273 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 290, 363 

Frontal abrasion 259, 321 

Frontal accretion 187, 239, 273, 302 

Terminal accretion 217, 225, 249, 272, 300, 302, 321 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 439 



DOBU. 

Si a, e, 
e e, a o o, e 

it" u u, a 

I /, r, n, — 
ng n, g, m, — n n mm 

h s 
s J 

V 

f w, s, 

k g, s,— t t, d, s, — P P, b 

a-a 46, 74, 199, 207, 214, 239, ng— 285 

258, 276, 278, 290, 300, 308, kg 302 

313, 317, 318, 324. 342, 360 k-s 297 

&-e 309, 328, 350 k— 46, 249, 258, 306 

a-o 302 n-n 74, 290, 317, 318, 321, 324, 

e-e 190, 276, 290 328 

e-a 47, 249, 318 h-^ 47, 278 

i-i 46, 47, 249, 285, 290, 300, s-j 239, 342, 344 

302, 308, 313, 329. 330, 342 t-t 47, 74, 199, 207, 249, 258, 

0-0 285 276, 306, 324, 350 

O-e 309 t-d 329 

U-M 74, 207, 239, 258, 278, 306, t-S 318 

317. 321, 329. 330, 344. 360 t— 302 

u-a 328 mm 258, 313, 317, 318, 321, 324, 

1-/ 308 328 

l-r 297 ^-w 290 

In 309, 313 ^'^ 290 

I— 350 f— 214, 290, 329, 360 

ng-n 309, 350 p-p 190 

ng-g 308 p-b 207, 285 

ng-m 199 

Identical 74. 190. 239, 276, 317, 324, 330, 342, 344 

Consonant identity. . . .328 

Vowel identity 46, 329. 360 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 199, 207, 278, 290, 306, 313 

Frontal abrasion 46, 214, 249, 306 

Frontal accession 46 

Terminal accession 190, 278, 300, 317, 342 

Metathesis 308 



440 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



DOMARA. 

a-a 312 1 — 312 

i-i 312 m-w 312 



DOURA. 

a. a, e 
e o o e 

i i u u 

1 I, r, i, — 
ng — n n, — m w 

h 
S d 

V TJ 

f h, k 
k — t k p h 

a-a 74, 217, 265, 284, 309, 312, ng— 309, 350 

313, 318, 324, 342, 350, 360 k— 249, 306 

a-e 291 n-n 74, 330, 342 

e-a 249, 272, 318 n— 259 

i-i 249, 259, 291, 312, 313, 330, s-d 342 

342, 350 t-k 74, 217, 249, 306, 318, 324, 

O-e 259, 309 350 

u-M 74, 265, 272, 284, 306, 330, m-w 217, 265, 312, 313, 318, 324 

360 \-v 291 

1-/ 309 f-h 272, 360 

l-r 265, 272 f-k 259 

l-i 284, 309 p-h 284 
1— 312, 313, 350 

Identical 265, 330 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 74. 217, 306, 318, 324, 342, 360 

Frontal abrasion 249, 259, 306 

Terminal accretion 249 



DUBA. 

a-a 324 t-t 324 

m-w 324 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 441 



GAIvAVI, 

a a, e, i, o 
e a, e o 0, e 

i i, a, u u, 

1 /, r, n, — 
ng n, m n n, k, — mm 

h g 

s s 

V 

f V, w, p, k, — 
\i. k, g i t, m p 

a-a 46, 74, 199, 217, 239, 265, 1— 313, 350 

290, 312, 313, 324, 328, 340, tig-n 350 

360, 363 ng-m 199 

a-e 350 k-fe 46, 149, 249 

A-i 350 k-^ 225, 297 

a-o 199 n-n 46, 74, 290, 328 

e-e 290, 363 n-k 254 

e-o 249, 272 n — 259 

\-i 46, 149, 225, 249, 273, 290, h-g 340 

312, 313, 350 s-^ 239, 344 

i-a 254 t-t 74, 199, 249, 324, 350 

i-o 259 t-w 217 

0-0 282 mm 217, 265, 312, 313, 321, 324, 

o-e 259 328, 340 

u-w 74, 239, 265, 272, 273, 282, i-v 254, 273, 282, 290 

321, 344, 360 i-w 290, 360, 363 

u-o 328 i-p 272 

I-/ 272 i-k 259 

I-r 225, 297 f — 360 
\-n 265, 312, 313 

Identical 46, 74, H9, 239, 324, 344 

Consonant identity . . . .249, 328 

Vowel identity 217, 265, 273, 360 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 225, 290, 312, 313, 363 

Frontal abrasion 321 

Frontal accretion 149, 239, 273, 360 

Terminal accretion 149, 217, 225, 249, 254, 272, 321, 340 

Metathesis 360 



442 



THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



GALOMA. 

a. a, e 
e e, a 
i i u u, i, o 

1 I, r, g, n, — 
ng g n n, g mm 

h r 
s r 

\ b, w 

i p, b 

kg,— t I,— P P, b 

a-a 46, 74, 109, 217, 254, 265, ng-g 285, 306, 346 

290, 291, 292, 294, 308, 312, k-g 46, 149 

313. 317, 324> 334. 335, 346, k— 249, 306 

351, 360 n-n 46, 74, 187, 290, 292, 317, 

a-e 284, 328 321, 328, 330, 334, 351 

e-e 122, 187, 190, 276, 290 n-g 109, 254 

e-a 47, 249 h-r 47, 206 

i-i 46, 74, 149, 206, 249, 254, s-r 298 

285, 290, 291 t-l 247 

0-0 187, 206, 247, 285 t— 47, 74, 217, 249, 276, 294, 

U-u 74, 109, 247, 265, 284, 292, 306, 346 

294, 298, 306, 317, 321, 330, m-m 217, 254, 265, 312, 313, 317, 

334, 335, 360 324, 328 

u-i 351 v-6 109 

u-o 328 y-iv 291 

l-l 308, 334, 335 i-b 122, 206, 290, 292, 294, 360, 

l-r 149 i-p 254 

l-g 308 p-p 190, 285 

In 265 p-b 247, 284, 285 

1— 284, 312, 313 

Identical 187, 190, 317, 321, 330, 334 

Vowel identity 217, 265, 334 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 46, 74, 109, 122, 206, 254, 285, 290, 292, 308, 

346, 360 

Terminal abrasion 324 

Frontal abrasion 47, 249, 306 

Frontal accretion 276 

Terminal accretion 321 

Metathesis 149, 334 v 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 443 



HULA. 

a a, e 

Q e, a o o 

I i, e u u, i, 

1 /, r, g, n, — 

ng g n n, k, — mm 
h r 
s r 

\ b, w 

f b, V 

k k, g,— t h, i, k, r,~ p p, b 

&-a 46, 74, 109, 214, 217, 265, k-k 149, 351 

276, 290, 291, 292, 294, 308, kg 249, 306 

312, 313, 317, 324, 334, 335, k— 46 

346, 349. 351. 360 n-n 46, 74, 187, 290, 292, 317, 

a-e 328 321, 328, 330, 334, 351 

e-e 122, 187, 190, 276, 290, 349 n-k 254 

e-o 47, 249 n — 109 

i-i 46, 47, 149, 249, 290, 291, h-r 47 

298, 308, 312, 313, 321, 330, s-r 298 

346 t-h 74 

i-e 254 t-t 276 

0-0 187, 247 t-k 349 

U-u 74, 109, 247, 265, 292, 294, t-r 347 

298, 306, 317, 321, 330, 334. t— 47, 217, 249, 294, 346 

335. 360 m-w 217, 265, 312, 313, 317, 324, 

u-i 351 328 

U-o 328 \-b 109 

i-i 335, 349 v-w 291 

I-y 149 f-b 360 

1-9 313 f-'Z' 122, 214, 254, 290, 292, 294 

I-w 265, 334 p-p 190 

I— 308, 312 p-6 247 
ng-^ 308, 346 

Identical 190, 330, 335 _^ 

Consonant identity .... 328 

Vowel identity 46, 109, 187, 217, 265 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 74, 122, 214, 290, 291, 308, 313, 334, 346 

Terminal abrasion 306, 324 

Frontal abrasion 46, 47, 109, 308 

Frontal accretion 187 

Metathesis 149, 321 



444 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



KABADI. 

a. a, e 
e e, a o o, e 
i i, e u u, 

1 r, - 

ng «, — n n mm 

h d 

s t 

V V 

f V, s, ~ 
K — t k, s p p 

a-a 46, 74, 214, 258, 265, 290, 1— 309, 312, 313, 336, 350 

292, 294, 300, 308, 309, 312, ng-n 308, 336, 350 

313, 317, 324, 335, 350, 351, ng— 309 

360 k— 46, 249, 258 

a-e 258, 291 n-n 46, 74, 259, 290, 292, 317, 

e-e 122, 290, 363 321, 330, 351 

e-a 47, 122, 249, 272 h-d 47, 363 

i-i 46, 47, 122, 259, 290, 291, s-t 298 

298, 308, 312, 313, 321, 330, t-k 47, 74, 247, 258, 294, 324, 

350 350 
i-e 300 t-s 249 

0-0 247, 309, 336, 363 mm 258, 265, 312, 313, 317, 324 

o-e 259 \-v 122, 291 

u-u 74, 247, 258, 265, 272, 292, f-v 122, 214, 290, 292, 294, 360 

294, 298, 317, 321, 330, 335, f-^ 259 

351 f— 272, 363 
u-o 360 p-p 247 

l-r 265, 272, 308, 335 

Identical 265, 317, 321, 330, 335 

Consonant identity. . . .122 

Vowel identity 46 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 74, 122, 214, 290, 292, 298, 308, 324 

Frontal abrasion 46, 249, 336 

Frontal accretion 300 

Terminal accretion 249, 272, 294, 300, 321, 335, 336 

Metathesis 360 



KEAKAI,0. 

a-a 312, 338 I— 312 

e-* 338 • kg 338 

i-* 312 m-m 312 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



445 



KEAPARA. 

a. a, e 
e e, a o o 

i i XX u, i, 

1 I, r, g, n, — 
ng ^ xv n, g mm 

h r 

s ; 

V w 

f V, b, g 
k k, g, h t I, — p p, b 

a-a 46, 74, 214, 217, 254, 265, ng-g 285, 308, 346 

290, 291, 292, 294, 308, 312, k-k 149 

313. 317, 324. 334. 335. 346, kg 249, 297, 306 

349. 351. 360 k-h 46, 214 

a-e 284, 328 n-n 46, 74, 187, 290, 292, 317, 

e-e 122, 187, 190, 290, 349 321, 328, 330, 334 

e-o 47, 249, 272 n-g 254 

i-i 46, 47, 149, 206, 249, 254, h-r 47, 206 

285, 290, 291, 298, 308, 312, s-l 298 

313, 321, 330, 346 t-l 247 

0-0 187, 206, 247, 285 t— 47, 74, 217, 249, 294, 346, 

u-M 74, 247, 265, 272, 284, 292, 349 

294. 298, 306, 317, 321, 330, m-w 217, 254, 265, 312, 313, 317, 

334. 335, 360 324. 328 

U-i 351 \-w 291 

u-o 328 i-v 122, 214, 254, 290, 292, 294 

l-i 335, 349 ^-b 272, 360 

l-r 149 f-g 206 

l-g 313 p-p 190, 285 

In 265, 334 p-6 247, 284 
I— 284, 297, 308, 312 

Identical 187, 190, 317, 321, 330, 335 

Consonant identity. . . .328 

Vowel identity 217, 265 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 46, 74, 122, 214, 254, 290, 291, 298, 308, 313, 

334. 346, 360 

Terminal abrasion. . . . .306, 324 

Frontal abrasion 47, 308 

Terminal accretion 321 

Metathesis 149 



446 run POIvYN^SIAN WANDERINGS. 



KIRIWINA. 

a a, e, i 
e e, a, i o o, a, u 
i i VL u 

I /, r, n, — 
ng g n n, I mm 

h s 
s s, n 

V w 

f -V, k, g, d, — 
k k, kw, g t t, d, s, k p b 

a-a 74, 214, 217, 276, 291, 294, k-k 149, 214, 225, 297, 306 

302, 308, 309, 312, 313, 317, k-kw 225 

318, 324 kg 302 

a-e 300 n-n 187, 317, 328, 330 

a-i 290, 309, 324, 328, 350 n-^ 74 

e-e 190, 297 h-s 47 

e-a 47, 187, 190, 276, 290, 318 s-j- 239 

Q'i 318 s-n 344 

i-i 47, 149, 273, 285, 290, 291, t-t 47, 74, 217, 276, 306, 318, 

297, 300. 302, 308, 312, 313, 324, 350 

329, 330, 350 t-d 302 

0-0 285, 309 t-s 318, 329 

o-a 187 t-k 294 

o-u 309 mm 217, 312, 313, 317, 318, 321, 

u-u 47, 149, 273, 285, 290, 291, 324, 328 

297, 300. 302, 308, 312, 313, v-w 291 

329, 330. 350 f-v 214, 273, 290 

I-/ 212, 290, 308, 312, 313, 350 f-g 294 

l-r 225, 297 f-k 212 

I-w 309 f-d 294 

1 — 291 f — 329 

ng-9 285, 308, 309, 350 P-& 190, 285 

Identical 149, 217, 297, 306, 312, 317, 324 

Consonant identity . . . .318, 328 

Vowel identity 273, 329, 344 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 74, 212, 214, 285, 291, 302 

Terminal abrasion 328 

Frontal accretion 187, 273, 276 

Terminal accretion 149, 300, 309, 317, 330 

Metathesis 308, 313, 350 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 447 



KIVIRI. 

a a, e, o, u 

e e, a, i o o 
i i u u, a 

\ r, n, — 

ng n, m n n mm 

h s, r 

s s 

V 

f b 

k k, g, s, — it P p, f 

a-a 74, 199, 217, 278, 313, 324, ng-m 199, 285 

328, 340, 350 k-k 350 

a-e 350 k-g 225, 306 

a-o 199 k-s 297 

a-u 300 k — 249 

e-e 190 n-n 74, 328, 350 

e-a 249 h-s 278 

e-t 363 h-r 340 

i-i 249, 300, 312, 313, 350 s-j 344 

0-0 285, 363 t-t 74, 199, 217, 249, 306, 324, 

u-u 74, 278, 306, 344 350 

u-a 306 mm 217, 312, 313, 324, 328, 340 

l-r 225, 297 f-b 282, 363 

In 312, 313 p-p 285 

I— 350 p-/ 190 

ng-n 350 

Identical 74, 217, 324, 344 

Terminal abrasion 350 

Vowel identity 350 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 278, 313, 340, 363 

Terminal abrasion. . .285, 312, 328 

Terminal abrasion 285, 312, 328, 350 

Terminal accretion 190, 278 



KOITA. 
a-a 217 m-w 217 t-w 217 



448 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



a-a 



a-e 

e-e 
e-a 
i-i 

0-0 

o-a 
u-u 

u-o 
l-r 

\-n 



KUBIRI. 

a a, 

i e, a 



0, 



1 t 



ng 



1 

n 
h 

s 



U, 



r, n 
n, m 
s, r 



m m 



b, 



k k, g, — it 

74. 217, 278, 300, 302, 312, Vi-k 

313, 317, 324, 328, 340, 351, k-^ 

360 k — 

316 n-n 

363 n-m 

249 h-s 

249, 300, 302, 312, 313 h-r 

363 s-^ 

282 t-t 

74, 278, 282, 306, 316, 317, m-m 

344, 351, 360 

328 i-h 

225, 316 f— 

312, 313 

Identical 74, 217, 324, 344, 351 Frontal abrasion 249/306 

Consonant identity 316, 328 Terminal accretion . 249, 278, 300, 

Consonant mutation : 302, 340 

Vowel identity..278, 306, 312, 313, 363 Metathesis 302 



351 

225, 302 
249, 306 

74, 328, 351 
317 
278 

340 

344 

74, 217, 249, 302, 306, 324 
217, 312, 313, 316, 317, 324, 
328, 340 
282, 363 
360 



KWAGILA. 



1 * 



ng n 





k k 


a-a 313, 324, 


350 


a-o 291 




e-t 190 




i-t 291, 313, 


330, 350 


u-u 330 


■ 


l-r 297 




1— 313, 350 




Identical 


7.24. 


Vowel identity . 


350 



a a, 



e t 



u u 



I 

n 
h 

s 



t t 



ng-n 


350 




k-k 


297 




n-d 


330 




t-t 


324, 


350 


m-m 


313, 


324 


\-g 


291 




p-6 


190 





m m 



V g 
f 
P b 



Frontal accretion 190 

Terminal accretion. ... 190, 330 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY, 449 



MAILU. 

a-a 312 1 — 312 

i-i 312 m-w 312 

MASSIM. 

a-a 268, 291, 318 m-m 318 

e-i 318 t-t 268, 318 

i-i 291 y-w 291 

l-r 268 

MEKEO. 

a a 

e e, a o 0, e, u 

i i u u 

I /, - 
ng ng, n n n, ng, — m w 

h k 
S k 

V /> 

i f, P,- 
k— t ife, — p / 

a-a 46, 74, 109, 207, 214, 217, k — 46 

254, 276, 290, 292, 294, 309, n-n 259, 321, 342 

312, 313, 318, 342, 350, 360 n-ng 46, 74, 254, 292 
e-e 190, 276, 290, 318, 363 n— 109, 290 

e-a 272 h-k 206, 363 

i-i 46, 206, 254, 259, 290, 312, s-fe 342 

313, 321, 342, 350 i-k 247 

0-0 246, 247, 336, 363 t— 74, 207, 217, 276, 294, 318, 

o-e 259 350 

o-u 309 m-w 217, 254, 312, 313, 318 

u-w 74, 109, 207, 247, 272, 292, \-p 109 

294. 321, 360 f-/ 294 

1-1 336 i-p 206, 214, 254, 272, 290, 292, 

1— 309, 312, 313, 350 360, 363 

ng-ng 309, 336 f— 259 

ng-w 350 P-/ 190. 207, 247 

Identical 321, 336 

Vowel identity 46, 109, 217, 276, 318 

Consonant mutation: 

Vowel identity 190, 206, 207, 214, 254, 290, 342, 360 

Frontal abrasion 46, 109 

Frontal accretion 272 

Terminal accretion 74, 254 



450 THE POLYNEJSIAN WANDEJRINGS. 







MABUIAG. 
















a 


a 














e 

















i i 




1 






u 


u, 


a, ai 


ng 






n 
h 

s 


s 








m m 
V 

f 


k— 






t 










p p 



a-a 46, 2i8 k— 46 

i-i 46 s-^ 344 

u-u 344 *"-"^ 76 

U-a 76 P-/* 218 
u-ai 76 

Identical 217, 344 

Vowel identity 46 

Frontal abrasion 46 



ng 



e-t 


64 


U-tt 


64 


u-a 


76 


u-e 


76 



MIRIAM. 












a 












e i 

















u 


u, 


a, 


e 


1 / 












n 








m 


m 


h 












s 








V 

f 




t 








P 


b 


I-/ 


64 










m-w 


76 










p-6 


64 











Consonant mutation : 
Vowel identity 64 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



451 



MISIMA. 



a a, e, I, u 

e e, a, i o o 

\ i u u 

\ I, n, — 

ng n, m n n, I, k, — m 771 
, h r 

s s, h 

\ w, r 
f 

k k, g t t, n p p, b 

a-a 109, 199, 217, 308, 312, 324, k-k 351 

342, 350 k-^ 297 

a-« 291 n-n 259, 330, 342, 351 

a-* 328 n-l 342 

a-tt 351 n-k 328 

e-e 190 n — 109 

e-a 47 h-r 47 

e-» 190 s-j 342 

i-i 47, 259, 291, 312, 330, 342 s-h 342 

0-0 247 t-t 47, 199, 217, 324, 350 

U-M 109, 247, 328, 330 t-n 217 
l-l 308 m-m 217, 312, 324, 328 

l-» 312 \-w 291 

I — 297, 350 \-r 109 

ng-w 308, 350 p-p 247 

ng-w 199 p-b 190 

Identical 217, 324, 342 

Vowel identity 109, 330 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 199, 308, 312 

Terminal abrasion 259, 308 

Frontal abrasion 109 

Metathesis 247 



452 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 







MUGUI.A. 




















a a, 


e, 















e 


e, 


a, i 





0, 


i 








i i 






1 h 


n, ■ 





u 


u, 


oa 


ng n, 


m 






n n 
h ^ 

s s, 


sh 








m j m 

V g 

f v,'^w, s, k 


k 








t t, 


k, 


h 






P P,^ 



a-a 199, 313, 324 n-w 290, 330 

3L-e 294, 350 h-s 363 

a-o 291 s-j 344 

e-e 190 s-j•/^ 298 

e-a 290 t-^ 199, 324. 350 

e-i 190, 363 t-k 294 

i-i 290, 291, 298, 313, 330, 350 t-h 247 

0-0 363 mm 313, 324 

o-i 247 v-^ 291 

n-u 212, 294, 298, 330, 344 i-v 294 

u-oa 247 f-w 363 

1-/ 212 f-j 290 

\-n 313 f-^ 212 

i— 350 V-P 247 

ng-»i 350 P-^ 190 

ng-m 199 

Identical 324, 330, 344 

Vowel identity 350 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 199, 212, 298, 313 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



453 



MUKAWA. 

a. a, e, 

e e, a o 0, u 
i *■ u u, 

I r, n, — 

ng n, m n n, k mm 

h s, g 

s s, t, — 

V 

f p, h, w, s 
k k t t, s p p, b 

a-a 46, 74, 199, 217, 239, 276, k-k 46, 249, 306, 351 

290, 300. 312, 313, 317, 324, n-n 46, 74, 259, 317, 328, 336, 

328, 335, 340, 350, 351, 360, 351 

a-e 316 n-k 290 

0.-0 199 h-s 206 

e-g 190, 276, 290, 363 h-g 340 

e-a 249 s-^ 239, 344 

i-t 46, 206, 249, 259, 273, 290, s-t 351 

298, 300, 312, 313, 330, 350 s— 298 

0-0 259, 285, 336, 363 t-t 74, 199, 217, 249, 276, 302, 

o-M 206, 247 306, 324, 350 

u-M 74, 239, 247, 273, 298, 302, t-s 247 

306, 316, 317, 330, 335, 344, m-w 217, 312, 313, 316, 317, 324, 

351. 360 328, 340 

u-o 328 f-b 259, 273, 363 

l-r 316, 335 f-p 206 

In 312, 313, 336 f-w 290, 360 

1 — 350 f-s 290 

ng-n 336, 350 p-p 247, 285 

ng-m 199, 285 p-6 190 

Identical 46, 74, 217, 239, 276, 306, 317, 324, 330, 335, 

344, 351 
Consonant identity. . . .249, 316, 328 

Vowel identity 273, 350 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 259, 312, 313 

Frontal accretion 190, 239, 273, 276, 298, 302 

Terminal accretion 190, 249, 285, 302, 330, 336, 340 

Metathesis 360 



454 



THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



MURUA. 

a a, e, i, u 
e e, i, u o o, au 
\ i, u U u, i, 

\ n, y, — 
ng g, m n n, s mm 

h 
s s 

V r 
f V 
k k, g t t, d, s P P, b 

a-a 199, 217, 276, 291, 308, 317, 1— 350 

318, 324, 350 ng-^ 285, 308, 309. 350 

a-e 199, 302, 350 ng-^ ^99 

a-i 300, 309 K-« 149. 300 

a-M 328 ^-9 302 

Q-e 190, 290 n-n 290, 317 

e-i 190, 318 n-^ 328 

e-tt 276 s-j 239 

i-i 149, 273, 290, 291, 300, 302, t-t 199, 217, 276, 306, 318, 324, 

308, 312 350 

i-u 285 t-^ 302 

0-0 247, 285 " t-s 247 

o-att 309 m-^ 217, 312, 317, 318. 324. 328 

U-u 273,306 y-r 291 

U-O 247, 328 T--" 273, 290 

u-i 306 P-/' 247 

I-« 309, 312 V-b 190, 285 

\-y 308 

Identical 217, 324 

Consonant identity . . . .306, 318 

Vowel identity . 273 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 290, 317 

Terminal abrasion ... 312 

Terminal abrasion 312, 3^7 

Frontal accretion 273, 276 

Terminal accretion 149, i99, 285, 300 

Metathesis i49 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 455 



NADA. 

a a, e, i, o 
e e, a, i o o, u 
\ i, a u «, e, o 

I /, r, n, — 
ng g, n, m, — n n, I, s, — m m 

h d 
s s 

V pw, r 
i V, k, — 
k k, kw, g t t, d, s p p, b 

a-a 109, 217, 276, 291, 302, 308, ng-m 199 

309, 312, 313, 317, 318, 324, ng— 308 

340, 342, 350 k-k 149, 306, 351 

a-e 199 h-kw 225 

a-i 290, 309, 328, 350, 351 kg 302 

a-o 199 n-n 290, 317, 330, 351 

e-e 190 n-l 342 

e-o 190, 276, 290 n-s 328 

Q-i 318 n — 109 

i-i 149, 225, 290, 291, 308, 312, h-d 340 

3i3> 330. 342 s-^ 239, 342, 344 

i-a 273 t-t 199, 217, 276, 306, 318, 324, 

0-0 247 350 

0-u 309 t-d 302 

U-W 109, 212, 273, 306, 317, 328, t-S 247 

330, 351 m-m 217, 312, 313, 317, 318, 324, 

u-e 344 328, 340 

U-o 247 \-pw 109 

\-l 212, 308, 312 v-r 291 

I-r 225 f-v 273 

1-n 309, 313 f-k 212 

I— 350 f— 290 

ng-g 309 p-/) 247 

ng-n 350 p-6 190 

Identical 149, 217, 306, 312, 317, 324, 330 

Consonant identity. . . .318, 344 
Consonant mutation: 

Vowel identity 212, 225, 313, 342 

Terminal abrasion. . .302, 340 



Terminal abrasion 302, 340 

Frontal accretion 273 

Terminal accretion 149, 199 

Metathesis 109 



456 



THE POI^YNESIAN wanderings. 



OIUN. 

Si a, e, o 
& e, a, i o a 
\ i, u u u, a, i 

I r, — 
ng n, m n n, m m in 

h r 
s n, — 

V 

f b 

k k, g, s, — t t p / 

a-a 74, 199, 217, 258, 290, 313, ng-w 199 

317, 324. 340. 350 k-fe 149. 225 

a.-e 217 k-g 306 

a-o 199 k-^ 297 

e-e 190, 290, 363 k— 249, 258 

e-a 187 n-n 74, 187, 290 

e-i 249 n-m 317 

i-i 149, 249, 290, 298, 350 h-r 340 

i-u 313 s-n 344 

o-a 187, 336, 363 s— 298 

u-u 74, 258, 298, 306, 317, 344 t-t 74, 199, 217, 249, 258, 306, 

u-a 306 324, 350 

u-i 344 mm 217, 258, 313, 317, 324. 340 

1-r 225, 297 f-b 282, 290, 363 

1— 313, 350 P-/ 190 

ng-w 336, 350 

Identical 74, 149, 324 

Consonant identity . . . .217 

Vowel identity 317 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 340, 363 

Terminal abrasion . . .290 

Terminal abrasion 290, 350 

Frontal abrasion 249, 336 

Frontal accretion 149, 187, 225 

Terminal accretion 187, 190, 249, 336 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 457 



PANAIETI. 

a a, e, u 

e e, a, i o 0, u 
\ i u u 

I r, n, — 

ng n, g n n, ng, g, — mm 

h r 

S s 

V w, r 

f P,~ 
k k it, h, n p p, b 

a-a 74, 109, 214, 217, 239, 292, k-k 225, 249 

308, 309, 312, 313, 324, 350 n-n 74, 259, 330 

a-e 291 n-ng 292 

a-u 328 ng 328 

e-e 190, 249 n — 109 

e-a 47 h-r 47 

e-i 190 s-^y 239 

i-i 47, 249, 259, 312, 313, 330 t-t 47, 74, 217, 249, 324, 350 

0-0 247 t-h 247 

O-u 309 t-re 217 

u-u 74, 109, 239, 247, 292, 328, mm 217, 312, 313, 324, 328 

330 V-r 109 

1-r 225, 308 v-w 291 

In 309, 312, 313 f-p 214, 292 

1— 350 f— 214 

ng-n 308, 350 ?-/> 247 

ng-g 309 P-& 190 

Identical 74. 217, 239, 249, 324, 330 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 214, 292, 308, 312, 313 

Terminal abrasion 259, 308 

Frontal accretion 239 

Terminal accretion 324 

Metathesis 247 



458 



THE POI.YNKSIAN WANDERINGS. 



POKAU. 

a. a, e 
e e, a, i o o, e 
i i, e u u, 

I I, i,— 
ng n, I, — n n, — mm 

h d 
S d 

V V 

f V, b, k 
k k, — t k, d p b, V 

a-o 46, 74, 109, 207, 214, 217, ng-n 285, 308, 346 

258, 265, 284, 292, 308, 309, ng-l 309 

312, 313, 317, 324, 339, 346, ng— 350 

350, 351- 360 k-k 149 

a-e 291 k — 46, 249, 258, 306 

e-e 190, 363 n-n 46, 74, 259, 292, 317, 321, 

e-a 249 330, 351 

e-i 122 n — 109 

ii 46, 149, 206, 249, 259, 285, h-d 206, 339, 363 

291, 298, 308, 312, 313, 321, s-d 351 

330, 346, 350 t'k 74, 207, 217, 249, 258, 306, 

i-e 273 324, 346, 350 

0-0 206, 285, 309, 363 t-d 298 

o-e 259 m-m 217, 258, 265, 312, 313, 317, 

u-u 74, 109, 207, 258, 265, 273, 324 

284, 292, 298, 306, 317, 321, \-v 109, 291 

330, 360 f-V 122, 206, 273, 292, 360, 363 

u-0 351 f-6 214 

l-l 265, 284, 308, 309, 339 f-k 259 

l-i 284 p-6 190, 207, 285 

I— 312, 313, 350 p-v 284 

Identical 149, 265, 317, 321, 330 

Vowel identity 46, 109 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 74, 190, 206, 207, 214, 217, 284, 285, 292, 298, 

306, 308, 309, 324, 339, 360, 363 

Frontal abrasion 46, 109, 306 

Frontal accretion 190 

Terminal accretion 190, 249, 321 

Metathesis 273 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



459 



RAQA. 

a. a, o 
Q e, i o 0, a 

i i n u, 

1 r, — 

ng n, in n n, m m in, d 

h r, I 

s n, — 

V 

f 6 

k k, ka, — t t, d p b 

SL-a 74, 199, 217, 317, 324, 328, k-fea 225 

340. 350 k— 249 

a-o 199 n-n 74, 328 

e-e 190, 363 n-m 317 

Q-i 249 h-r 340 

\-i 225, 249, 298, 350 h-/ 363 

0-0 336, 363 s-n 344 

0-0 282, 336 s — 298 

\X-u 74, 282, 298, 306, 317, 344 t-t 74, 199, 217, 249, 306, 324, 

U-O 328 350 

\-r 225 i-d 217 

1— 336, 350 n»-w 217, 317, 324, 328, 340 

ng-» 336, 350 i"-<^ 217 

ng-w 199 f-6 282 

k-fe 306 p-b 190 

Identical 74, 217, 306, 324 

Consonant identity. . . .328 

Vowel identity 225, 317, 344, 350, 363 

Consonant mutation : 
Vowel identity 190 

Frontal abrasion 249, 336 

Frontal accretion 190, 340 

Terminal accretion 190, 336 



460 



THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



RORO. 

a a, e 
e e, a o o, a, e, u 

\ i VL u, i, 

I I, r,~ 
ng n, — n n mm 

h t, z, — 
s h, z, t 

\ V, b 
f V, b, h, — 
k — t t, h p p, b 

a-a 46, 74, 214, 217, 276, 290, ng— 309, 346, 350 

292, 300, 308, 309, 312, 313, k— 46, 249, 306 

324, 335, 339. 346, 350, 360 n-n 46, 74, 254, 259, 290, 321 

a-e 291 h-t 206, 363 

e-e 190, 276, 290, 363 h-z 206 

e-a 122, 249, 272 h — 339 

i-i 46, 122, 206, 249, 254, 259, S'h 239 

290, 291, 298, 300, 308, 312, s-z 298 

313, 321, 346, 350 s-^ 298 

0-0 206, 247, 336, 363 t-t 247, 249 

0-a 336 t-h 74, 217, 276, 306, 324, 346, 

o-e 259 350 

o-u 309 m-w 217, 312, 313, 324 

u-u 74, 292, 292, 298, 306, 321, \-v 291 

335, 360 \-b 122, 291 

U-i 239 f-v 206, 254 

u-o 247 f-6 214, 272, 290, 360, 363 

1-/ 308 f-h 259 

l-r 272, 308, 335, 339 f— 292 

1— 309, 312, 313, 336, 350 p-p 190 

ng-n 308, 336 p-6 247 

Identical 190, 321, 335, 339 

Vowel identity 46, 276 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 74, 206, 214, 217, 254, 290, 298, 308, 324, 360, 

363 

Frontal abrasion 46, 239, 249, 292, 306, 336 

Frontal accretion 300, 339 

Terminal accretion 190, 247, 249, 259, 335, 350, 360 



run SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 461 



RUBI. 

a a, e, i, o 
Q e, a, i 
\ i \x u, o 

1 I, n, — 
ng g, mo, — n. n, g mm 

h 
s r 

V — 

* w, g, ~ 

k k, g, — t t, k, r p p, b, w 

a-a 46, 199, 217, 265, 276, 278, ng— 285 

292, 312, 313, 317, 321, 324, k-k 351 

334, 349, 351, 360 k-g 46 

a-e 328 k — 249, 306 

a-i 284, 290 n-n 46, 187, 290, 317, 321, 328, 

a-o 109 334, 351 

e-e 187, 190, 276, 290 n-g 109 

e-a 249 s-r 298 

e-t 349 t-t 199, 217, 249, 276, 306, 324 

i-i 46, 249, 285, 290, 298, 312, t-k 349 

313, 321 t-r 278 

0-0 187, 285 m-w 217, 265, 312, 313, 317, 324, 

u-u 109, 265, 278, 284, 292, 298, 328 

306, 317, 321, 334, 351, 360 V— 109 

U-o 328 f-w 360 

l-l 349 f-g 360 

l-n 334 f — 290, 292 

1— 265, 284, 312, 313 p-p 285 

ng-^ 285 p-6 190, 285 

ng-mo 199 p-w 284 

Identical 217, 276, 317, 321, 324 

Consonant identity. . . .328 

Vowel identity 187, 265 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 46, 190, 199, 278, 285, 298, 306, 33J 

Terminal abrasion 292 

Frontal abrasion 249, 265, 292, 306 

Frontal accretion 187 

Terminal accretion 46, 249, 321 

Metathesis 360 



462 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



SARIBA. 

a a, e, i, o 
e e, a, i 0, i 
i i, ti u u, a, 

I r, n 
ng n, fii n n, g m tn 

h ^ 
s s 

\ w, — 

f V, u, w, s, k, 

k k, g, — t t, d, k, s p p, b 

a-a 46, 74, 109, 199, 217, 239, k— 258 

258, 265, 276, 291, 313, 324 nn 74, 290, 321, 328, 330 

a-e 278, 294 n-g 109 

a-i 328 hs 278, 363 

a-o 258 s-s 239, 298 

e-e 190, 276, 290, 297, 363 t-t 74, 199, 217, 247, 249, 258, 

e-a 249, 272 276, 324 

e-i 363 t'd 329 

i-i 46, 149, 249, 285, 290, 291, t-k 294 

297, 298, 313, 330 t-s 258 

i-u 329 tn-m 217, 258, 265, 313, 321, 324, 

0-0 285, 363 328 

o-i 247 w-w 291 

uu 74, 109, 212, 239, 265, 278, V— 109 

294, 298, 321, 329, 330 f-7; 272 

u-a 272, 328 i-w 294, 363 

u-o 247 f-u 363 

l-r 149, 212, 297 f-^ 290 

l-n 265, 313 f-k 212 

ng-n 285 f— 329 

ng-m 199 p-p 247 

k-k 46, 249, 297 p-b 190, 285 

k-^ 149, 249, 272 

Identical 46, 74> 217, 239, 276, 297, 298, 324, 330 

Consonant identity. . . .249, 328 

Vowel identity 265 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 199, 212, 285, 291, 313, 363 

Frontal abrasion 321 

Frontal accretion 149, 239, 276, 278 

Terminal accretion 109, 149, 272, 321, 328 

Metathesis 149 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 463 



SINAUGORO. 

a. a, e 
e e, a o o 

it u u, o 

I I, r, n, g, — 
ng p- n n, g mm 

h / 
S I, r 

\ w, — 

f V 

k k, g t t, k, s, I P b, — 

a-a 46, 74, 109, 214, 217, 265, k-k 351 

276, 290, 291, 292, 312, 313, k-^ 46, 214, 249, 306, 338 

317, 318, 321, 324, 334, 335, n-n 46, 74, 187, 290, 292, 317, 

338, 346, 349, 351 321, 328 

a-e 328 n-g 109 

e-g 122, 187, 190, 276, 290, 318, h-l 47 

338, 349 s-l 298 

e-a 47, 249 s-r 338 

i-i 46, 47, 249, 285, 290, 291, t-^ 47, 74, 217, 249, 306, 324, 

298, 312, 313, 321, 330, 346 346 

0-0 187, 247, 285 t-k 349 

u-u 74, 109, 247, 265, 292, 298, t-l 247 

306, 317. 330- 334, 335, 351 *-•$• 276, 318 

u-o 328 mm 217, 265, 312, 313, 317, 318, 

l-^ 335 324, 328 

l-r 349 \-iv 291 

In 265, 334 V— 109 

l-g 313 f-v 122, 214, 290, 292 

1— 312, 313 p-6 190, 285 

ng-g 285, 346 p— 247 

Identical 74, 217, 317, 321, 324, 330, 335 

Consonant identity. . . .325 

Vowel identity 109, 187, 265, 276, 318 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 46, 122, 190, 214, 285, 290, 291, 298, 306, 313, 

334, 336 

Frontal accretion 187, 190, 276 

Terminal accretion 249, 321 



464 



TH^ POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



SUAU. 



a a, e, 

e e, a o o 

I i u u, o 

1 r, n, — 

ng n, m n n mm 
h s 
s s 

V g 

f V, w, s, h, e, — 

kg, — t t, s, — p b, — 

a-a 46, 74, 199, 207, 217, 239, k— 46, 249, 258 

258, 265, 276, 278, 290, 292, n-n 74, 290, 292, 317, 321, 330 

313. 317, 318, 324, 350, 360 h-^ 278, 363 

a-e 294 s-j 239, 298, 344 

a-o 199, 291 t-t 74, 199, 207, 217, 249, 258, 

Q-e 190, 276, 290, 318, 363 276, 318, 324 

e-a 249 t-s 247, 258 

i-i 46, 149, 249, 290, 291, 298, t — 294 

313. 330, 350 m-m 217, 258, 265, 313, 317, 318, 

0-0 247, 363 321, 324 

u-u 74, 207, 212, 239, 247, 258, x-g 291 

265, 278, 292, 294, 298, 317, f-v 294, 363 

330, 344> 360 f-w 290 

U-o 321 f-h 290 

l-r 149, 212 is 290 

l-n 265, 313 f-e 292 

I — 350 f— 212, 360 

"S"^ 350 p-b 190, 207 

ng-m 199 p — 247 
k-g 149 

Identical 74, 217, 239, 276, 298, 317, 318, 324, 330, 344 

Vowel identity 46, 265 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 207, 212, 278, 313, 350, 363 

Terminal abrasion 290 

Frontal abrasion 46, 247, 249, 321 

Frontal accretion 149 

Terminal accretion 207 

Metathesis 149 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



465 



TAGULA. 

a o, o 
Q e, i O 0, u, we 

\ i, u u u, ia 

1 /, n 
ng ng n n, ng mm 

h 
s 

V 

i iv, V 
^ g, — t d, r p 6 

a-a 217, 258, 294, 302, 312, 313, In 313 

317, 324 ng-ng 336 

a-o 258 k-^ 302 

e-g 190 k — 258 

e-i 190 n-n 259 

i-i 247, 259, 312, 313 n-ng 259 

i-u 259, 302 t-d 247, 258, 302 

0-0 247, 336 t-r 217, 258, 294, 324 

0-u 336 m-w 217, 258, 312, 313, 317, 324 

o-we 336 f-v 294 

U-M 212, 294 f-w 212 

u-ta 212 p-b 190, 247 

I-/ 212, 312, 336 

Identical 312 

Vowel identity 217 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 212, 247, 294, 313, 324 

Terminal abrasion 259, 317 

Frontal accretion 247, 336 



466 



THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



TAUPOTA. 

a a, i, 
e e, a o o 

i i, a, e U «, o 

\ I, r, n, g 
ng n, g, m n n, g, h, — mm 

h t 
S h, g', — 

V w 

f V, w, b, — 
k k, g, ~ t t, — p b 

a-a 74, 199, 217, 239, 265, 290, ng-m 199 

291, 300, 312, 313, 317, 324, k-k 225 

339, 350, 360 kg 297 

a-i 328 k — 46, 306 

a-o 199 n-n 46, 74, 290, 317, 330 

e-e 190, 290 n-g 254 

e-o. 272 n-h 328 

i-i 46, 259, 290, 291, 298, 300, n— 259 

312, 313, 350 h-t 339 

ie 254, 330 s-h 239 

i-a 254 s-g' 344 

0-0 259, 282, 336 s— 298 

U-u 74, 239, 265, 272, 282, 298, U 74, 199, 302, 306, 324, 350 

302, 306, 317, 321, 330, 344, t— 217 

360 mm 217, 265, 312, 313, 317, 321, 

u-0 328 324, 328 

'-^ 339, 350 y-w 291 

Ir 225, 297 f-v 254, 259, 282, 290 

l-n 265, 312, 313, 336 f-w 290, 360 

l-g 272 f-b 272 

ng-n 336 f— 360 

ng-c^ 350 p-b 190 

Identical 74, 239, 317, 324 

Vowel identity 46, 217, 259, 265, 344 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 282, 290, 291, 306, 312, 313, 350 

Frontal abrasion 46, 259, 306, 32 

Frontal accretion 225, 239, 298 

Terminal accretion 190, 225, 254, 272, 300, 302, 321, 330, 336, 339 

Metathesis 360 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 467 



TAVARA. 

a a, 
e e, a, u o o, u 
\ i, u u, 

I I, n 
ng n, g, m n n m wz 

h h, t 
s 

V g 

f p, w, h 
k g, h, — t ^, — p p 

a-a 46, 74, 199, 217, 258, 265, ng-m 199 

290, 300, 313, 324, 339, 350 kg 272 

a-o 199, 258, 291 k-h 297 

e-c 290 k — 46, 258 

e-a 272 n-n 46, 74, 259, 290 

e-M 190 h-/i 206 

i-i 46, 259, 290, 291, 300, 312, h-^ 339 

313. 350 t-t 74. 199. 258, 324, 350 

i-o 206 t — 217 

0-0 259, 336 mm 217, 258, 265, 312, 313, 321, 

o-u 206 324, 328 

uu 74, 258, 265, 272, 321 \-g 291 

u-o 328 i-p 206 

l-l 297 f-iv 259, 290 

l-n 265, 312, 313, 336, 350 f-h 272 

ng-n 336 p-p 190 

ng-g 350 

Identical 74, 324 

Vowel identity 46, 217, 265 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 259, 290, 313, 350 

Terminal abrasion. .312 

Terminal abrasion 312 

Frontal abrasion 46, 321 

Frontal accretion 190 

Terminal accretion 272, 300, 321, 336, 339 



468 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



TUBETUBE. 

a a, e, i 
e e, a, i o o, ua 
\ i u u, i 

\ I, n, y 
ng n n n mm 

h s 
s s 

V w 

f k, s, i, V, w, — 
k k, g, — t t, s, k P P, b 

a-o 46, 74, 217, 258, 265, 291, k— 258 

292, 294, 298, 321, 330, 360 n-» 46, 74, 259, 290, 292, 317, 

a-e 291, 294, 300, 360 330 

a-* 265 h-^ 206, 340 

e-e 190, 290, 318 s-^ 298 

e-a 249 t-t 74, 217, 249, 258, 318, 324 

e-t 190 t-s 247, 258 

i-i 46, 149, 206, 249, 259, 285, t-k 294 

290, 291, 298, 300, 313, 330 mm 217, 258, 265, 313, 317, 318, 

0-0 206, 285 321, 324, 340 

o-ua 247 \-w 291 

u-u 74, 212, 247, 258, 265, 292, f-h 212 

294. 298, 321, 330, 360 f-^ 290 

u-i 317 f-i 292 

l-l 212 f-v 294 

1-n 265, 313 f-w 360 

l-y 265 f — 206 

ng-n 285 p-/> 247 

k-k 46, 149 p-6 190, 285 

k-f7 249 

Identical 46, 74, 149, 217, 298, 318, 324, 330 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 206, 212, 285, 291, 313, 340 

Terminal abrasion 259, 317 

Frontal abrasion 321 

Terminal accretion 149, 249, 321 

Metathesis 360 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 469 



UNI. 

a. a, e, 
e e, a o o, eo, a 

i i u u 

I /, r, i, — 

ng w, — n w, — m m 

h d 

s t 

\ V, w 

f V, b, g 
k — t k, — p 6 

a-a 46, 217, 265, 284, 290, 292, 1— 312, 313, 336 

312, 313, 317, 324, 339, 342, ng-n 346 

346, 360 ng— 336 

a-e 291 k — 46 

a-o 284 n-n 46, 290, 292, 317, 321, 342 

e-e 290 n — 259, 342 

e-a 272 h-d 339 

i-i 46, 259, 290, 291, 312, 313, s-t 342 

321, 342, 346 t-k 324, 346 

0-0 336 t — 217 

o-eo 259 m-m 217, 265, 312, 313, 317, 324 

o-a 346 \-v 291 

u-w 265, 272, 284, 292, 317, 321, v-w 291 

360 f-t; 290, 292, 360 

l-l 265, 272, 284, 339 f-6 272, 290 

l-r 265 f-g 259 

I'i 284 p-6 284 

Identical 265, 321 

Vowel identity 46, 2 1 7, 339 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 290, 292, 324, 342, 360 

Frontal abrasion 46, 259 

Frontal accretion 321, 336 

Terminal accretion 259, 321 



470 



THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 







WAGAWAGA. 




a-a 


74. 


217, 290 


t-t 74 


e-e 


290 




t — 217 


i-i 


290 




m-m 217 


i-u 


74 




f-ltf 290 


n-n 


74, 


290 

WAIMA. 
a a 








e a 







i 1 




U tl 






1 I, 


r, — 


ng n, — 


n n 








h /( 








s t 





t t, h 



m m 



V 

f 
P 



a-a 308, 312, 335, 


346 


ng— 


346 


e-a 47 




n-n 


321 


i-i 47, 308, 312, 


321, 346 


h-h 


47 


u-w 321, 335, 344 




s-t 


344 


1-/ 308 




t-t 


47 


!-»■ 335 




t-h 


346 


1— 312 




m-m 


312 


ng-» 308 








Identical 


■ ■ 47. 321, 


335 




Consonant mutation 








Vowel identity . . . 


• • • 308, 344 






Metathesis 


•■■47 







THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



471 



WEDAU. 



a a, I, o 
e e, a o o, ti 

i i, a, e, o u u, o 

1 /, r, n, g 
ng n, g, m n n, g, — mm 

h ^, - 
s g, — 

V b, w 
f w, p, V, b 
k k, g, — t t, — p b 

a-a 46, 74,109,199,217,239, ng-^ 308,350 

258, 265, 276, 290, 291, 300, ng-TO 199 

308, 313, 317, 324, 328, 340, k-k 225 

350. 351, 360 kg 297, 338 

a-i 328 k— 46, 258, 306, 338 

a-o 199 n-n 46, 74,290,317,351 

e-e 190, 276, 290, 338, 363 n-g 109 

e-a 272 n— 254, 259, 328 

i-i 46, 206, 259, 290, 291, 300, h-^ 340 

308, 313, 350 h— 206 

i-a 254 s-g 344 

i-e 308 S— 239 

i-o 206 t-t 74, 199, 258, 276, 302, 306, 

0-0 247, 259, 282, 336, 363 324, 350 

O-M 206 t 217, 247 

u-w 74, 109, 239, 247, 258, 265, mm 217, 258, 265, 313, 317, 321, 

272, 282, 302, 306, 317, 321, 324, 328, 340 

344. 351, 360 v-6 109 

u-o 328 'v-^v 291 

1-/ 272, 308 f-v 254, 259, 282, 290, 363 

l-r 225, 297 f-b 272 

In 265, 313, 336, 350 f--a; 290, 360 

\-g 272 f-p 206, 272 

ng-n 308, 336 p-b 190, 247 

Identical 74, 276, 317, 324 

Vowel identity 46, 217, 239, 259, 265, 344 

Consonant mutation : 

Vowel identity 190, 282, 290, 291, 306, 308, 313, 340, 350, 350, 

363 

Frontal abrasion 46, 259, 306, 321 

Frontal accretion 225, 239, 254, 360 

Terminal accretion 109, 190, 225, 272, 300, 302, 308, 321, 336 

Metathesis 360 



472 



THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



As was done in the preceding part of the work, we next group these 
mutations under their several phonetic elements. Regarded locally the 
following tables provide the means for an analytical study of the Poly- 
nesian content of the languages which, on the northern shore of Torres 
Straits, reach from the head of the Gulf of Papua to the Louisiade Archi- 
pelago. Considered more generally they fall into place as supplementary 
to the series of similar tables beginning on page 121. 



a-e 



a-o 



Boniki 

Dobu 

Doura 

Galavi 

Galoma 

Hula 


Kabadi 

Keapara 

Kiriwina 

Kiviri 

Kubiri 


Misima 

Mugula 

Mukawa 

Murua 

Nada 


Awalama 

Boniki 

Galavi 


Kiriwina 

Misima 

Murua 


Nada 
Rubi 


Awalama 
Boniki 
Dobu 
Galavi 


Kiviri 
Mugula 
Mukawa 
Nada 


Oiun 
Raqa 
Rubi 

Sariba 



Oiun 

Panaieti 

Pokau 

Roro 

Rubi 


Sariba 

Sinaugoro 

Suau 

Tubetube 

Uni 


Sariba 
Taupota 


Tubetube 
Wedau 


Suau 

Tagula 

Taupota 


Tavara 

Uni 

Wedau 



Kiviri 



Misima 



Murua 



Panaieti 



e-M 



o-e 



Boniki 

Dobu 

Doura 

Galavi 

Galoma 

Hula 

Kabadi 


Keapara 

Kiriwina 

Kiviri 

Kubiri 

Mekeo 

Misima 


Motu 

Mugula 

Mukawa 

Nada 

Oiun 

Panaieti 


Pokau 

Roro 

Rubi 

Sariba 

Sinaugoro 

Suau 


Taupota 

Tavara 

Tubetube 

Uni 

Waima 

Wedau 


Keakalo 
Kiriwina 
Kiviri 
Kwagila 


Miriam 
Misima 
Motu 
Mugula 


Murua 
Nada 
Oiun 
Panaieti 


Pokau 

Raqa 

Rubi 


Sariba 
Tagula 
Tubetube 


Motu 










Boniki 


Murua 


Tavara 






Awalama 
Boniki 


Galavi 


Nada 


Taupota 


Wedau 


Hula 
Kabadi 


Motu 


Pokau 


Taupota 


Wedau 


Awalama 
Boniki 


Galavi 


Motu 


Tavara 


Wedau 


Motu 


Murua 


Oiun 


Sariba 


Tagula 


Kiriwina 
Kubiri 


Oiun 


Raqa 


Roro 


Uni 


Boniki 
Dobu 


Doura 
Galavi 


Kabadi 
Mekeo 


Pokau 
Roro 


Uni 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



473 



0-* 



Motu 



Mugula 



Sariba 



u-e 



u-t 



u-o 



Kiriwina 
Mekeo 


Mukawa 
Nada 


Panaieti 
Roro 


Tagula 
Tavara 


Tubetube 
Wedau 


Dobu 
Kiviri 


Mabuiag 
Miriam 


Motu 


Oiun 


Sariba 


Miriam 


Nada 








Galoma 
Hula 


Keapara 


Murua 


Oiun 


Tubetube 


Awalama 

Boniki 

Galavi 

Galoma 

Hula 


Kabadi 

Keapara 

Kubiri 

Motu 

Mugula 


Mukawa 
Murua 
Nada 
Pokau 


Raqa 
Rubi 
Sariba 
Sinaugoro 


Suau 
Taupota 
Tavara 
Wedau 


Galoma 
Hula 


Keapara 


Sinaugoro 


Taupota 


Wedau 



l-i 



l-Z 



!-» 



l-r 



ng-g 



Doura 


Murua 


Pokau 


Tubetube 


Uni 


Awalama 

Boniki 

Dobu 

Doura 

Galavi 


Hula 

Keapara 

Kiriwina 

Mekeo 

Miriam 


Misima 

Motu 

Mugula 

Nada 

Pokau 


Roro 

Rubi 

Sinaugoro 

Tagula 

Taupota 


Tavara 

Tubetube 

Uni 

Waima 

Wedau 


Awalama 

Boniki 

Dobu 

Galavi 

Galoma 


Hula 

Keapara 

Kiriwina 

Kiviri 

Kubiri 


Misima 

Mugula 

Mukawa 

Murua 

Nada 


Panaieti 

Rubi 

Sariba 

Sinaugoro 

Suau 


Tagula 

Taupota 

Tavara 

Tubetube 

Wedau 


Awalama 

Dobu 

Doura 

Galavi 

Galoma 

Hula 


Kabadi 

Keapara 

Kiriwina 

Kiviri 

Kubiri 

Kwagila 


Massim 

Motu 

Mukawa 

Nada 

Oiun 


Panaieti 

Raqa 

Roro 

Sariba 

Sinaugoro 


Suau 

Taupota 

Uni 

Waima 

Wedau 


Boniki 

Dobu 

Domara 

Doura 

Galavi 

Galoma 

Hula 


Kabadi 

Keakalo 

Keapara 

Kiriwina 

Kiviri 

Kwagila 


Mailu 

Mekeo 

Misima 

Motu 

Mugula 

Mukawa 


Murua 

Nada 

Oiun 

Panaieti 

Pokau 

Raqa 


Roro 

Rubi 

Sinaugoro 

Suau 

Uni 

Waima 


Awalama 

Dobu 

Galoma 


Hula 

Keapara 

Kiriwina 


Murua 

Nada 

Panaieti 


Rubi 

Sinaugoro 

Taupota 


Tavara 
Wedau 



ag-l 



Pokau 



474 



THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



ng-m 



Awalama 


Kiviri 


Murua 


Rubi 


Taupota 


Boniki 


Misima 


Nada 


Sariba 


Tavara 


Dobu 


Mugula 


Oiun 


Suau 


Wedau 


Galavi 


Mukawa 


Raqa 






ng-n 

Awalama 


Kwagila 


Mukawa 


Raqa 


Tavara 


Boniki 


Mekeo 


Nada 


Roro 


Tubetube 


Dobu 


Misima 


Oiun 


Sariba 


Uni 


Galavi 


Motu 


Panaieti 


Suau 


Waima 


Kabadi 


Mugula 


Pokau 


Taupota 


Wedau 


Kiviri 










ng-Mg 

Mekeo 


Tagula 








ng— 

Dobu 


Kabadi 


Nada 


Roro 


Uni 


Doura 


Motu 


Pokau 


Rubi 


Waima 


kg 

Dobu 


Keakalo 


Motu 


Sariba 


Taupota 


Galavi 


Kiriwina 


Murua 


Sinaugoro 


Tavara 


Galoma 


Kiviri 


Nada 


Suau 


Tubetube 


Hula 


Kubiri 


Oiun 


Tagula 


Wedau 


Keapara 


Misima 


Rubi 






k-h 










Awalama 


Keapara 


Tavara 






k-k 










Boniki 


Kiviri 


Mukawa 


Pokau 


Sinaugoro 


Galavi 


Kubiri 


Murua 


Raqa 


Taupota 


Hula 


Kwagila 


Nada 


Rubi 


Tubetube 


Keapara 


Misima 


Oiun 


Sariba 


Wedau 


Kiriwina 


Motu 


Panaieti 







k-Mt 
k-s 



Motu 
Dobu 



k— 



n-d 



n-g 



n-h 
n-k 
n-l 



n-m 



n-w 



Kiviri 



Oiun 



Awalama 


Kabadi 


Motu 


Rubi 


Tavara 


Dobu 


Kiviri 


Oiun 


Sariba 


Tubetube 


Doura 


Kubiri 


Pokau 


Suau 


Uni 


Galoma 
Hula 


Mabuiag 
Mekeo 


Raqa 
Roro 


Tagula 
Taupota 


Wedau 


Kwagila 










Awalama 
Galoma 


Keapara 
Panaieti 


Rubi 
Sariba 


Sinaugoro 
Taupota 


Wedau 


Awalama 


Taupota 








Boniki 


Galavi 


Hula 


Misima 


Mukawa 


Kiriwina 


Misima 


Nada 






Kubiri 


Oiun 


Raqa 






Awalama 
Boniki 


Keapara 
Kiriwina 


Mugula 
Mukawa 


Raqa 
Roro 


Taupota 
Tavara 


Dobu 


Kiviri 


Murua 


Rubi 


Tubetube 


Doura 


Kubiri 


Nada 


vSariba 


Uni 


Galavi 
Galoma 


Mekeo 
Misima 


Oiun 
Panaieti 


Sinaugoro 
Suau 


Wagawaga 
Waima 


Hula 


Motu 


Pokau 


Tagula 


Wedau 


Kabadi 











a-ng 



Mekeo 



Panaieti 



Tagula 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



475 



Murua 



Nada 



h-d 



h-g 



Boniki 
Doura 
Galavi 


Hula 

Mekeo 

Misima 


Nada 
Panaieti 


Pokau 
Taupota 


Uni 
Wedau 


Kabadi 


Motu 


Nada 


Pokau 


Uni 


Galavi 


Mukawa 


Wedau 






Tavara 


Waima 









h-k 



h-l 



h-r 



h-s 



h-t 



h-z 



s-d 



s-g 
s-h 



s-k 



a-l 



»-r 



s-s 



Mekeo 



Raqa 



-sh 



s-t 



8-2 



Mugula 
Kabadi 



Roro 



Sinaugoro 



Galoma 
Hula 


Keapara 
Kiviri 


Kubiri 
Misima 


Oiun 
Panaieti 


Raqa 


Dobu 
Kiriwina 


Kiviri 
Kubiri 


Mugula 
Mukawa 


Sariba 
Suau 


Tubetube 


Awalama 


Roro 


Taupota 


Tavara 




Roro 










Awalama 


Roro 


Wedau 






Doura 


Motu 


Pokau 






Taupota 


Wedau 








Awalama 


Misima 


Motu 


Roro 


Taupota 


Mekeo 










Keapara 


Sinaugoro 








Kiriwina 


Oiun 


Raqa 






Galoma 


Hula 


Rubi 


Sinaugoro 




Boniki 
Dobu 
Galavi 
Kiriwina 


Kiviri 
Kubiri 
Mabuiag 


Misima 
Mugula 
Mukawa 


Murua 

Nada 

Panaieti 


Sariba 

Suau 

Tubetube 



Mukawa 



Roro 



Uni 



Waima 



t-d 



t-h 



Awalama 
Boniki 


Mukawa 
Oiun 


Raqa 


Taupota 


Wedau 


Awalama 
Dobu 


Kiriwina 
Murua 


Nada 
Pokau 


Raqa 
Sariba 


Tagula 


Awalama 
Hula 


Mugula 


Panaieti 


Roro 


Waima 



476 



THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



t-i 
t-fe 

t-l 

t-m 

t-n 

t-r 

t-s 

t-t 



t— 



ta-d 



\-b 



v-g 



v-p 



Hula 

Doura 

Hula 

Kabadi 

Galoma 

Boniki 

Misima 

Hula 

Dobu 
Kabadi 

Awalama 

Boniki 

Dobu 

Duba 

Galavi 

Kiriwina 

Awalama 

Dobu 

Galoma 

Raqa 
I 

Awalama 
Boniki 
Dobu 
Domara 
Doura 
Duba 
Galavi 
Galoma 
Hula 

Galoma 

Awalama 

Mekeo 



Kiriwina 

Mekeo 

Mugula 


Pokau 
Rubi 


Sariba 
Sinaugoro 


Tub 
Uni 


Keapara 


Sinaugoro 






Galavi 


Koita 







Panaieti 

Rubi 

Kiriwina 
Mukawa 

Kiviri 

Kubiri 

Kwagila 

Massim 

Misima 

Motu 

Hula 

Keapara 

Mekeo 



Kabadi 

Keakalo 

Keapara 

Kiriwina 

Kiviri 

Koita 

Kubiri 

Kwagila 

Mabuiag 

Hula 

Kwagila 

Nada 



Tagula 

Murua 
Nada 

Mugula 

Mukawa 

Murua 

Nada 

Oiun 

Panaieti 

Suau 
Taupota 



Mailu 

Massim 

Mekeo 

Miriam 

Misima 

Motu 

Mugula 

Mukawa 

Murua 

Roro 

Mugula 



Sariba 
Sinaugoro 


Suau 
Tubetube 


Raqa 

Roro 

Rubi 

Sariba 

Sinaugoro 

Suau 


Taupota 

Tavara 

Tubetube 

Wagawaga 

Waima 

Wedau 


Tavara 
Uni 


Wagawaga 
Wedau 



Nada 


Suau 


Oiun 


Tagula 


Panaieti 


Taupota 


Pokau 


Tavara 


Raqa 


Tubetube 


Roro 


Uni 


Rubi 


Wagawaga 


Sariba 


Waima 


Sinaugoro 


Wedau 



Wedau 



Suau 



Tavara 



f-h 



f-d 



Misima 

Doura 
Kabadi 

Galoma 

Hula 

Keapara 

Rubi 

Galoma 

Hula 

Keapara 

Kiriwina 



Murua 
Motu 



Kiriwina 

Misima 

Panaieti 

Sariba 

Kaviri 
Kubiri 
Mukawa 



Nada 
Pokau 



Sariba 
Sinaugoro 



Sinaugoro 

Oiun 

Pokau 

Raqa 



Panaieti 
Roro 



Taupota 
Tubetube 



Roro 
Taupota 



Uni 



Uni 
Wedau 



Uni 
Wedau 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 



477 



f-e 



H 



f-i 



f-k 



f.p 



f-s 



f-M 



f-v 



Suau 



Mekeo 



Keapara 


Kiriwina 


Rubi 


Uni 




Doura 
Motu 


Roro 


Suau 


Tavara 


Tubetube 


Tubetube 






- 




Boniki 
Doura 


Galavi 
Kiriwina 


Mugula 
Nada 


Pokau 


Sariba 


Boniki 
Galavi 


Galoma 
Mekeo 


Mukawa 
Panaieti 


Tavara 


Wedau 


Dobu 
Kabadi 


Mugula 
Mukawa 


Sariba 


Suau 


Tubetube 



Sariba 



f-w 



P-& 



Awalama 

Boniki 

Galavi 

Hula 

Kabadi 


Keapara 
Kiriwina 
Motu 
Mugula 


Murua 
Nada 
Pokau 
Roro 


Sariba 
Sinaugoro 
Suau 
Tagula 


Taupota 
Tubetube 
Uni 
Wedau 


Awalama 

Boniki 

Dobu 


Galavi 

Mugula 

Mukawa 


Rubi 

Sariba 
Suau 


Tagula 

Taupota 

Tavara 


Tubetube 

Wagawaga 

Wedau 


Dobu 

Galavi 

Kabadi 


Kiriwina 

Kubiri 

Nada 


Panaieti 

Roro 

Rubi 


Sariba 
Suau 


Taupota 
Tubetube 


Awalama 

Boniki 

Dobu 

Galoma 

Hula 

Keapara 


Kiriwina 

Kwagila 

Miriam 

Misima 

Motu 

Mugula 


Mukawa 

Murua 

Nada 

Panaieti 

Pokau 

Raqa 


Roro 

Rubi 

Sariba 

Sinaugoro 

Suau 


Tagula 

Taupota 

Tubetube 

Uni 

Wedau 



p-/ 

p-h 



Kiviri 



Doura 



P-P 



Mekeo 



Oiun 



Awalama 


Kabadi 


Misima 


Murua 


Rubi 


Dobu 


Keapara 


Motu 


Nada 


Sariba 


Galoma 


Kiviri 


Mugula 


Panaieti 


Tavara 


Hula 


Mabuiag 


Mukawa 


Roro 


Tubetube 



p-v 



Pokau 



p-w 



Rubi 



P— 



Sinaugoro 



Suau 



478 THE POI.YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

The elaboration of this New Guinea material, the more particularly in 
consideration of its important bearing upon the Viti Stream in the southern 
gateway out of Indonesia, has made it advisable to extend and, when there 
is reason therefor, to amend the notes in several cases which have found 
their place in Appendix I. 

46. 

Until this Torres Straits material became available the line of partition 
between kai and kani was quite distinctly the division between Polynesia 
and Melanesia, for kani found its utmost eastern extension in Viti. Lack- 
ing support from areas of pure Polynesian, the Viti kani could be regarded 
only in the light of a Melanesian component of that mixed speech. But 
on the New Guinea coast, at the very portal of exit from the Malay Archi- 
pelago, we find the two stems in use side by side. Sariba exhibits the 
Polynesian kai unaltered ; Suau, Mabuiag, and Dobu show the loss of the 
initial k, that loss being normal in those languages. The supposition that 
a medial n has been lost, which would be necessary to the argument of the 
devolution of kai from kani, has been opposed by the fact that in the four 
languages not only is n never lost, but it retains its proper value far more 
consistently than in most of the neighbor tongues. We may, then, safely 
regard kani as an ancient Polynesian stem which maintained its existence 
to a point just within Nuclear Polynesia and then was dropped from the 
synonymy. 

47- 

With this considerable record of two forins appearing side by side in 
each of the Pacific areas, we need have no hesitation in assuming tahi to 
be an ancient variant of the tehi radical. This slight phonetic change is 
satisfactorily explained on the theory of the neutral vowel. The series 
which we find in New Guinea should offer a satisfactory identification of 
the Indonesian material, which in the earlier note I denied. Waima hati 
is the tahi radical under 3214 metathesis. For the mutation of the aspirate 
to the sibilant in Dobu and Kiriwina tasi there is abundant confirmation. 
The mutation h-d in Motu and Kabadi is normal to those languages, and 
the kappation in the latter has become very familar in these studies. 

We now pass to a group of forms susceptible of less simple explanation, 
that of which Misima tari is the type. Nowhere have we found evidence 
in support of a mutation h-r, except in Sinaugoro with its similar s-l muta- 
tion. But we have some evidence in support of a t-r mutation, on the 
nature of which refer to note 258. If, then, we are precluded from the 
direct passage from tahi to tari we have no difficulty in finding a Motu 
bridge which shall give us the series tahi-tadi-tari, each span of which may 
be safely traversed. Thus we are carried over to the identification of the 
tari of Misima and Panaieti, and to Sinaugoro tali. Thence to ari is a safe 
step, for t is normally dropped in Galoma, Hula, and Keapara. This shows 
that the languages which use the forms tari-ari did not acquire the word 
from the Polynesian wanderers through direct contact, but as a secondary 
loan from the Motu- Kabadi folk. Thus having found the r in the h place 
and the loss of stem t, and both within regions of Proto-Samoan influence, 
we may safely accept the Indonesian identifications. 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 479 

74- 
It is now quite clear that our record shows the existence of a natu series 
parallel with ati. Therefore the forms which exhibit an initial nasal with 
the final i are to be regarded as natu attracted by ati. In this examination 
of the New Guinea material it is safe to assume natu as a Polynesian stem. 
Mekeo ngau-nga is readily establishable upon Galoma nau with a nasal 
termination, and the latter may perhaps be seen in Malekula netin. 

76. 

Particular interest attaches to the discovery of the amu type in Mabuiag 
and Miriam, western and eastern islands of the straits and remote from 
the New Guinea coast, for we shall make opportunity to discuss the paucity 
of Polynesian material in these islands. The existence of amu in Fotuna 
affords us reason to regard the type as ancient Proto-Samoan, and that 
Mabuiag and Miriam received it directly and not on secondary loan from 
Motu. 

109. 

We note here two series, yet reference to the several phonetic tables will 
show that the essential mutations, while in general feasible, are in par- 
ticular not well supported. 

A. Retentive of the initial consonant: Galoma, Wedau; and with 

obliteration of the inner labial, Sinaugoro, Sariba, Rubi. 

B. Abrading the initial, but retentive of some representative of the 

inner labial: Pokau, Mekeo, Hula, Motu, Panaieti, Misima. 

Nada pwau may be regarded as apu under 213 metathesis, and the then 
initial labial under such maltreatment as marks the Melanesian q, cf. 285. 
But from pwau Kiriwina pwak conforms to no phonetic law as yet found 
in this region. 

122. 

Kabadi vai and Roro bai may be taken as simple variants upon the 
vei type which has effected a lodgment in Nuclear Polynesia in Viti and 
Rotuma. Kabakada wara has already been under comment in the principal 
note on this item. The other forms are clear variants upon the Proto- 
Samoan fe. 

149. 

The Motu and Kabadi forms, referred to the simpler stem in Nifilole 
laki, may be adjudged composites of a liki variant. The liki type is found 
in New Guinea only in a metathetic variant : Keapara, Hula, Galoma, Suau, 
and Sariba in series. The other forms are of the kiki type with various 
foreign elements in composition. 

190. 

In the principal note on this item we have established an elemental pe; 
in this district it is recoverable from composites in Awalama and Tavara, 
in which the tt suggests the intimately associable ula component elsewhere 
widely extended. The dupUcated stem pepe is found in Hula, Keapara, 
Galoma, and in composition in Dobu. The ready mutant bebe is found 
simply in Rubi, Suau, Sariba; Taupota and Wedau are consimilars of u- 



480 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

composites in Awalama and Tavara ; Motu and Sinaugoro of this stem are 
initial composites in a class by themselves; Mukawa and Raqa are com- 
posite initial and final, the latter not identifiable but probably not mata, the 
former showing the ula component ; the doubly composite Pokau involves 
the same liquid component, which has elsewhere been identified in each 
position; and from this we pass easily to Roro. The slightly variant bebi 
stem appears simply in Mugula, Tubetube, Tagula, Murua; the Panaieti 
and Misima form is most readily explicable as preduplicated. The next 
stem variant is beba, simply in Nada and Kiriwina, conduplicated in Boniki. 
In Kwagila we release stem bibi with an initial kara suggestive of the 
common liquid component. The stem fefe appears simply in Mekeo, and 
with a termination of unascertained value in Kiviri and Oiun. Thus is 
established a very satisfactory series of evolution forms. 

206. 
The few New Guinea forms exhibit harsh but not wholly improbable 
mutations of the consonants and, to a less degree, of the vowels of Proto- 
Samoan hifo, the * being the most consistent element. The aspirate is 
found only in Tavara ; it passes to the sibilant in Tubetube, Mukawa, and 
Roro (zi) ; the mutation to d is abundantly established in Motu and Pokau, 
passes easily to t in Roro, and thence is caught in the general kappation 
movement to Mekeo kipo; these have all been downward mutations, the 
change to r in Keapara and Galoma, upward in the lingual column, has 
been discussed in the supplementary note 47 as diagnostic of secondary 
borrowing; in Wedau the aspirate is extinct. The /-mutations to v, p, h, b, 
are abundantly familiar ; the ^-mutant in Keapara looks like a secondary 
borrowing from Galoma neighbors ; in other items it appears in Kiriwina, 
Rubi, and Uni; the peculiar siio of Tubetube is no doubt due to the fact 
that this language has acquired neither v nor/. The vowel changes call for 
no note except the occurrence of i-o in Tavara and Wedau; elsewhere in 
these data this mutation is identified in Awalama, Boniki, Galavi, and Motu. 

207. 
These forms entail no difficulty until we reach ahu, which Motu uses 
along with tapu. Inasmuch as the t is abundantly determined in this 
language, ahu looks like a secondary borrowing from Mekeo, where t is 
commonly elided. 

212. 

The New Guinea forms are alXfulu derivatives, except possibly Suau uru. 
As that language has no/, this may derive iromfulu; equally it may derive 
from the ulu which we have well established as in Proto-Samoan posses- 
sion during the Melanesian transit. 

214. 

As in the principal note on this item, so in the Torres Straits littoral we 
have no difficulty in recognizing the two stems faka and fa. 

217. 
The presence of the form ama in Awalama, Taupota, Tavara and Wedau, 
languages which possess the t, forms a connecting link for this state of the 
stem between its occurrences in Melanesia and those in Indonesia. 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 481 

225. 
In the Pacific we find as stems kili, kali, kalo, and kalu. These are found 
in New Guinea as follows, but because of this consonantal fixity we shall 
not list mutant vowels. 

kili: Galavi, Nada, and perhaps Raqa. 

kalo: Kubiri, Kiviri, Oiun, Motu, Taupota, Wedau and Boniki. 

kali: Kiriwina. 

To the above New Guinea contributes : 
kuli: Kiriwina and Panaieti. 

Wedau and Mukawa giai scarcely seems associable, the resemblance to 
kili being only in the first syllable. 

239- 

Interesting results appear in the comparison of these New Guinea forms 
with the variants already noted from the Proto-Samoan asu. Take first 
the initial elements. The palatal is found in Modnus, the first landmark 
of the Samoa Stream; in Torres Straits, at the first landmark of the Viti 
Stream, in Sariba, Panaieti, Mukawa and Awalama ; the whole island bars 
these two streams. The labial preface of Malekula Aulua is found in Galavi, 
Taupota, Wedau, and Boniki. Ambrym ivalehi seems paralleled with Motu 
kwalahu. The asu stem is identified in Suau and Dobu without alteration. 
Roro hiavu is strikingly like Lo hiev, in which we distinguish hi as the asu 
derivative and ev-av-avu as the a/i-fire derivative. Nada and Murua museu 
(and the invert umseu in Kiriwina) seem like asu with the w-preface not 
elsewhere seen. In the phonetic tables regard has been had only of the 
recoverable asu and its mutants. 

247. 

Tagula bibido is our sole New Guinea occurrence of the pito stem, all the 
other examples in this area deriving from puto. These have been freely 
dealt with by the New Guinea tribesmen, but close analysis will show 
several series of variants, each consonant being strongly affected in the 
mutation. For p we have p, b,f, m, and extinction; for t we have t, d, k, s, 
fe, r, and extinction. The i'-forms find distant support in Buka. The muta- 
tion to I has a satisfactory extension in this area and affords valuable 
support to the note on the subject under item 258. 

249. 

In the absence of t in the languages, Hula and Keapara gia and Galoma 
ia derive from Sariba gita. As to Kabadi is' ana, Dr. Ray states distinctly 
that s' is found only once in New Guinea and that once is not Kabadi; 
however, it hangs quite properly upon ihana which he presents as a variant 
of itana in Roro, and the latter connects through ita and gita with kita 
and kite. 

254- 

For the most part these New Guinea identifications exhibit the nifi-stera 
before the acquisition of the conditional ma, which, however, appears in 
Mekeo, Galoma, and Keapara. In Taupota and Awalama we have an 
initial element which is probably formative, but we are without evidence 



482 . the; Polynesian wanderings. 

of transition phases which may establish wo as a mutant of ma. In the 
former consonant of the stem the mutation n-ng-g-k to extinction is steady 
and well established ; so, too, the series of the latter consonant f-v-p-w. 

258. 

In the Proto-Samoan stem tnatakut we find four consonants to engage 
our attention. The m, in fact the whole conditional preformative ma with 
the exception of Kabadi me, exists unaltered through our New Guinea 
identifications. The t in second place undergoes no greater change than 
the kappation in Pokau and Kabadi and the change to r in Tagula, on 
which see the principal note. In Tagula mar ode we shall arrive at the 
most satisfactory conclusion by assuming that the stem syllable ku has 
vanished, thus leaving d as representative of stem t. The stem k has van- 
ished completely in all these New Guinea identifications. The final t is 
preserved in Dobu, Oiun, Awalama ; becomes d in Tagula, 5 in Sariba ; has 
vanished from Pokau and Kabadi. 

259- 
The development of these widely diverse forms is to be studied in the 
mutations of the stem consonants. The former remains n in Mukawa, 
Awalama, Ta vara, Roro, Kabadi, Mekeo, Pokau, Panaieti, Tubetube, Misima, 
Tagula; it is no more than a breathing in Motu; is lost from Taupota, 
Wedau, Doura, Uni, Galavi, Boniki. The / becomes v in Taupota and 
Wedau, b in Mukawa, w in Awalama and Tavara, h in Roro, and vanishes 
in Mekeo. From this stage we reach the extirpation of the second syllable 
in Panaieti, Tubetube, and Misima ; and Tagula I regard as a devolution 
form of the latter. Returning to Roro we find the h passing to j' in Motu 
and Kabadi. Here comes a lacuna. If we imagine a passage to t, prac- 
ticable but nowhere recorded, the not infrequent kappation would account 
for Pokau, Doura, Galavi and Boniki. Thence to Uni is an easy passage. 

265. 

The forms in the Torres Straits area run in the series ruma-luma-numa- 
numi-yuma-uma. With the exception of numi we find Melanesian instances 
of each form. 

272. 

The probably more elemental stem efu is traceable in Keapara and Mekeo. 
The lefu stem appears in Motu, Doura, Kabadi, Roro, Uni, Wedau, Galavi, 
Boniki. In the principal note I pronounced, on the material then acces- 
sible, against kahu of the Duke of York. We now recognize a kefu stem, 
either coordinate with lefu and nefu or possibly derivative from the latter. 
This is found in Taupota, Wedau, Motu, Tavara, Awalama, and Sariba. 

273- 
The addition of this material removes the objection noted in the principal 
note (6) against the form kuvi. The assumption of initial k is of wide 
extent in New Guinea ; in fact but two identifications lack it, Motu uhe, 
which is not the common yam name, and the variant in Pokau, which is 
metathetic of the 231 type. 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 483 

276. 

This series of identifications runs very smoothly and calls for little com- 
ment. In a group of the languages we encounter the preface k which has 
been noted in 273. So far as comparison may be made this appears in the 
same languages in the two items. 

278. 

The identifications are very simple and faithful to the uha stem. Sariba 
exhibits the preface k as in 276. The Rubi form with the liquid is com- 
parable with matching forms in the other gateway. 

282. 

These forms are simple until we reach Kiviri-Oiun bobu. This seems to 
be a duplication oifou degraded either to fo or to fu, the former being intrin- 
sically the more likely form, but we lack the data to make a determination. 

284-. 

The course of the initial consonant in this area is to b, to v, to h, to w. 
The liquid passes through i to extinction. This passage from consonant 
to vowel has not been segregated in Melanesian phonology, but in New 
Guinea it is found in five languages and in several items. 

285. 

The absence of complication in these identifications in the southern gate- 
way affords me the opportunity to note here, as satisfactorily as anywhere, 
my surprise that in this New Guinea material we find so marked an absence 
of the final consonants of the closed stems. In the hypothesis we are to 
regard these landings on the shore of Torres Straits as among the most 
ancient way-ports of the migration of the Proto-Samoan swarm, yet in this 
particular we find a predominance of the junior forms which in Polynesia 
we are to regard as developed in general since the Melanesian transit. It 
may well be that the New Guinea languages shared the tendency of objec- 
tion to closed stems and had not yet advanced to the employment of 
formative suffixes, which has been the chief agent in preserving once final 
consonants in Nuclear Polynesian. In this case, having no means of pro- 
tection for closing consonants, the process of final abrasion proceeded with 
scant interruption to remove them. 

290. 

Here, as in remoter Polynesian migration, we find the trace (Murua vine) 
of the earlier stem fine. Another simple stem calls for comment, sina in 
Mugula, sine in Suau, Sariba, Tubetube, Dobu. I incUne to regard this as 
fine under a first mutation (hine) to the aspiration of its own series ; then, 
by the floating of h, swung into secondary mutation normal to the lingual 
series. Thus we may establish the transition phase by which Sina has 
become a woman's name in Polynesia and is thus removed from possibiUty 
of association with the shining sina (342). 

In the general fafine stem this material gives us reason to suspect that 
the former and the latter / are not of the same potency or quality ; for 
that reason I note separately their mutation series for comparison. For 



484 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

ja we find jai in Suau, confirming its occurrence at three Solomon Island 
stations : 

Former /; to h., to w, to p, to h, to v, to extinction. 
Latter/.- to h, to s, to w, to p, to 6, to v, to extinction. 
Diversely mutant: w-v, Taupota, Wedau, Galavi, Boniki; w-s, Mu- 
kawa; w-h, Suau; w — , Dobu; — h, Redscar Bay. 
The only changes of n are to k in Mukawa, to I in Kiriwina, to extinction 
in Mekeo. In Rubi gaiine I regard ga as a foreign composition member 
and tine as the remnant of jifine after extirpation of /, as also in Nada. 

291. 

The final liquid hitherto recognized in Indonesia is of wide extent in 
New Guinea. It occurs in these languages: Tubetube, Massim, Taupota, 
Wedau, Misima, Panaieti, Mugula, Suau, Awalama, Kwagila, Tavara. "* It 
will tend toward simplicity to include therewith Kiriwina -waia and Kabadi 
veina. The p-b forms discovered in Melanesia account for Roro bei. The 
k forms, sparsely found in Melanesia, are here represented by goila in five 
languages. The vowel change from vai to vei has already been discovered 
and accepted. In Nada and Murua rai offers a form without parallel, 
unless we are prepared to establish the v-r mutation upon this instance 
and a single form in Misima and Panaieti in item 109. 

292. 

These identifications are very satisfactory. We note two which are 
unusual. In Tubetube and Suau the initial labial is replaced by a light 
vowel sound, evidently transitional to its entire absence in Rubi and 
Roro. In Sinaugoro, Hula, and Keapara we lack explanation of the inter- 
jected palatal. The loss of the final vowel in Rubi is rare, but not without 
parallel in Melanesia. 

297. 

The Proto-Samoan stem nowhere exactly appears in any of these New 
Guinea languages save Sariba and Kiriwina. The closest approximation 
is stem gila recoverable from Keapara and Misima. Next we find a gala 
stem with its range of consonant mutation. At the last we find a karo 
stem in Kwagila. I have collated only for the consonantal elements and 
with no great insistence on the validity of these groups. 

298. 

A very good series is here exposed. The only unusual element is the 
preface in Awalama, Taupota, and Mukawa; and this recurs in Nggao. 
In the principal note I expressed doubt as to the Malay and Javanese ; we 
come nearer to them with this New Guinea material, where idu and ilu 
are regular in their mutation. 

300. 

The prevalence of n in these New Guinea identifications inclines me now 
to the establishment of the Proto-Samoan stem ikan, the more particularly 
as this region of the great island seems to have been Uttle visited by Indo- 
nesian rovers. The central k is altogether absent, except perhaps that the 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 485 

extra i in Tubetube He is some such recognition of recent loss as is carried 
by the ' in Samoan. Inexplicable and unrelated prefixes are found in Roro 
and Kabadi. 

302. 

The kati stem is easily recognizable in Kiriwina and Nada, and the change 
of final vowel does not interrupt the identification in Tagula. The Dobu 
form seems associable, yet we have in that speech no confirming instance 
of a i elided under full protection. The former element of Kubiri gitaboni 
I regard as gati under 1432 metathesis, and thus admissible. Murua gedi 
is a simple variant of gadi. The Tubetube and Suau forms are not to be 
explained. 

In Boniki, Mukawa, Taupota, and Wedau I recognize a different root, 
the Proto-Samoan ut of the same meaning. In the two former it is modu- 
lated by the preface k which has already been seen in this area. In Nuclear 
Polynesia we find this root as follows : 

Samoa : u,feu, utia, to bite. Futuna : ^^, uti,i6.. Uvea : uu, uusi,\<l. 
Tonga: uu, uji, feuuji, feuutaki, id. 

The Taupota utai and forms associable therewith derive quite satisfac- 
torily from this Proto-Samoan ut, except that Melanesia, so far, has exhib- 
ited no identifications which might bridge the great gap between Torres 
Straits and Nuclear Polynesia. 

306. 

The New Guinea identifications are truer to type than many which are 
found in Melanesia. The series is kutu-gutu-utu-uku-uhu-uu-u, and from 
gutu along an offshoot to gu. 

308. 

In this Torres Straits material we find no occurrence of the sky sense, 
which is the only meaning which the stem carries in Indonesia and in 
Polynesia. In several cases the stem designates day and its light, more 
commonly it is the wind, and these two meanings are found in Melanesia. 
Yet on the eastern coast of New Guinea, at Gorendu in Astrolabe Bay, 
Miklucho Maclay has recorded lang in the sense of sky. 

309- 
Lacking in the simplicity which marks many of the New Guinea identi- 
fications, we shall best account for the variety in this item by assuming 
that the loan has been made in several instances at second or third hand. 
Thus, while Dobu nene is remote from lango, the latter element in the 
composite nene-wara points to a borrowing of the nigau-wari of Murua ; 
this is easily derivative from Panaieti nagunagu, which may readily come 
from the same parent as Mekeo angu, and that parent is an easy variant 
of lango. In one devolution series we find lalo-lao-ao and angu-au, in 
another nagu-nigu-nigo-nene. The acquisition of these forms clears up 
some of the difficulties noted in the principal note: Guadalcanar ango is 
abundantly established ; and the Solomon Islands lau-au no longer requires 
assignment to the Post-Polynesian raiders. 



486 



THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



312. 

Not one of these forms fails of recurrence in Polynesia itself except nim, 
and the Polynesian intolerance of closed syllables precludes that. In this 
added material we note the following instances where the five word and 
the hand word diverge : 



Five. 


Hand. 


Language. 


nim 
lima 
imn 
lima 


nima 
nima 
gima 
ia-mila 


Tavara, Kiviri. 
Tagula, Nada. 
Keapara, Hula, Sinaugoro. 
Kiriwina. 



313- 

In Kiriwina ia-mila the metathetic form, of the 3214 type, has the same 
prefix ia as in ia-gila in item 308 where also it is associated with a meta- 
thetic form. 

316. 

Mukawa and Kubiri exhibit the stem as melu, which reappears in Santo, 
Lo, and Volow. They differ slightly in their treatment of it, Mukawa con- 
duplicating, Kubiri preduplicating the stem. The syllable na may have 
locally a formative function, or it may represent the final m of the stem. 

317- 
The word remains almost without change in this area until we reach the 
mamu form in three languages neighboring in a single bay. The n-m muta- 
tion has been observed but once, in the New Georgia and Nggao forms in 
item 351. Tagula ma has lost distinctive form, yet it is reasonable to 
associate it with manu as a product of excessive degradation. 

321. 
There are two distinct loan series in this area. The one borrows the 
form inu and subjects it to no change greater than the suffixation of local 
formative elements. The metathesis in Hula is patent, 213 type. The Uni 
bibinu is clearly a preduplication of binu, but we have no other example of a 
prefix to this stem. It would undoubtedly have served Judge Fornander 
as a link between Polynesian and Greek. It should, however, be noted 
that similar preface consonants have elsewhere been noted in New Guinea 
despite their anomaly in Polynesian. The second loan series is based upon 
the stem inum with a consistent sacrifice of the former vowel. This series 
runs clear from numa to nom; then with a further frontal abrasion we have 
the series from uma to im, and probably Kiriwina mum adjusts itself there- 
with. Then with a preface t it is possible that we can trace yet another 
series in tanuma, toman by metathesis, toma and torn. Murua am.omu may 
be related in some obscure fashion to mum. 

324. 
Excellent identifications are found in the series mata-maka-mati-matan- 
mara-maha-ma. We encounter a group based on a mani stem which we 
can not reconcile with mata; they are included in the list for so much value 
as may lie in the resemblance to ma. 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 487 

328. 
We should remove the Mekeo and Roro words from this item ; they are 
variants of lango (309) and have already been discussed in their proper 
place. So far as we have words with the n-m skeleton we may feel secure 
in the identification. At the same time it should be noted that the vowel 
treatment is the less usual one in each of these New Guinea languages, but 
each finds confirmation in Melanesia, and the namo form is found in the 
Polynesian of Fotuna. The more complicated forms call for examination in 
detail. In the composites two alien elements are involved. The iodi of 
Av/alama is so clearly the eoti of Tavara that we are assured that the mo of 
the latter is a wasted form of Awalama himo. As between the succeeding 
members of the other group, kini of Taupota and Wedau, and the nika and 
niku of Nada and Murua, there is an evident metathesis, but it is imprac- 
ticable to determine from our material the direction in which it has acted. 
We then encounternajJiM in the series gumu-kimu-sumo-simu-himo-imo-mo. 
The gumu form illuminates Tangoan Santo moke, and himo the Male make, 

both by metathesis. 

329- 

It is interesting to note in this area the close proximity of udi and udu, 

the latter of which is so strongly prevalent in the eastern gateway. 

330. 
As soon as we pass from the identical niu in New Guinea we encounter 
some very interesting series of Indonesian resemblances. Misima nihu, 
with the inner assumption of the aspirate, is identical with the Malagasy. 
The forms with final liquid in Mukawa, Awalama, Taupota, and Kwagila 
are readily comparable with forms in Indonesia subject to the same modifi- 
cation. The rura of Kubiri and Kiviri is a doubtful form, but the presence of 
the final liquid syllable may serve as a link to the foregoing. The Kiriwina 
forms seem associable with the Sulu and Ahtiago, metathesis of the 132 type 
affecting the two vowels. 

The Motu identification is so distinct (and Galoma is clearly metathetic, 
of the 3214 type) that it carries the nanu forms. Furthermore the muta- 
tion \-n is well established, not only in New Guinea and in Melanesia but 
in Polynesia as well. 

All these identifications are satisfactory until we encounter Mekeo nga- 
ngau-nga. I have admitted it for inspection because it has the lau stem 
vowels properly placed, but the consonant mutation (which, however, is 
normal in Moiki and has a certain standing in Melanesia) and the dupli- 
cation lack confirmation in the speech and in the life-history of the word. 

336. 
After the excellent identifications in Mekeo and Tag^la we shall have to 
grope our way through local modifiers and degradation forms. Excising 
the formative elements, we pick out nono in Mukawa, Tavara, Wedau, 
Awalama, and Taupota ; and this is cut down to no in Oiun. The loss of 
the initial liquid (a well-supported movement in the fotu* languages) gives 
ona in Roro, ano (321 metathesis) in Raqa, oono in Kabadi, which is yet 
further reduced to oa in Uni. 



488 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

338. 

In this collection Motu dae would scarcely find a place if it were not for 
the Saa ta'e to account for the initial t, and for the establishment in other 
items of the extinction of k. Wedau also has established the k loss, and 
the initial g may be regarded as a modified kappation of the Motu t. Both 
these forms may proceed from the stem sake. So, too, does Sinaugoro 
rage, for the s-l mutation found in 298 confirms the r in this instance. The 
Keakalo agi rests upon the simpler ake stem. 

339- 
The forms which exhibit the mutation of the initial aspirate to t, d, and 
extinction are satisfactory. Thus we have no difficulty in accepting Tau- 
pota, Awalama, Tavara, Roro, Motu, Uni, and Pokau. In Tavara the e 
in the / place may be an error in transcription and the word be identical 
with the Awalama form, or it may be comprehended as a phase of the 
mutation from the liquid to the vowel noted in item 284. The remaining 
forms are too remote from type to establish themselves, except that we 
note the presence of a series keta-eta-ta. 

340. 

A considerable group of these languages has a vocable of sarima type, 
but we have no explanation of the interjection of a syllable within any 
Polynesian word ; we note the curious resemblance and constant difference, 
but may venture on no identification. Divested of extraneous matter, 
the other New Guinea forms rest upon the mutation series for the aspirate 
of s-t-d-r. It is interesting to note the persistency of an n either in the 
stem itself or characteristically associated therewith. This is found in 
Kubiri, Koko-Yimidir, Galavi, and Mukawa, and in Astrolabe Bay on the 
east coast in Gorendu saman-mole. It comes again to light in Tanna and 
Aneityum. 

342. 

To these satisfactory identifications we add from Asti'olabe Bay the 
equally satisfactory Gorendu sing, the sun, a form by no means uncommon 
in Melanesia. 

344- 

The mutation proceeds regularly from .y to t, to n, to g. Vowel variety 
appears but twice, in Nada and Oiun, and is associable with the only 
Melanesian instance of vowel change, Norbarbar visis. 

349- 

The fact that Motu talo is of the present Polynesian type and that the 
other New Guinea identifications are of the Efate type is proof that during 
the traverse of Torres Straits both forms were in the possession of the 
migration. 

350- 

There is little difiiculty in these; identifications. Kiriwina taigila is so 
clearly metathetic that the intrusive i need give us no concern. We have 
next a series in which the 1-n mutation dominates. Next comes the loss 
of I in taina, tain, teina, teini, kaina. Then follows the loss of the vowel 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 489 

in the second syllable. The extirpation of an inner syllable in these lan- 
guages is rare, but in this case it is incontestable ; this gives us the tertiary 
series tena, tega, Una, tenan. Simultaneous loss of / and ng gives a sec- 
ondary series of taia, taiya, kaia, haia-na. Mekeo aina shows loss of / and /, 
but retains a trace of «^. _j. 

Forms associable with the stem kanus hitherto postulated are kanu, kan, 
kanudi, kanuna, kanuta, kanunu, kaninu, kanuru, kinura, kunruvi. The 
series of the anus type runs aninu, anumai, anodi, aniulu, atiulu, ainuku. 
It may be that the final s of the two stems appears in kanudi, kanuta, 
anodi; but it is unsafe to attempt to trace it beyond these well-estabUshed 
mutations. ^^ 

A critical point is the position of the stem /. From it we obtain two 
series: the more direct is vua, pua, bua, gua, hua; the other, affected by 
metathesis quasi ufa, is uwa, uwe, ova, owu, awu; this accounts for the 
Kabadi and Rubi forms. It is a matter of no great moment, save in the 
establishment of radiant foci for this loan material, that while ua might 
devolve from the other series it follows more normally in the languages 
where it is found as a reduction form of uwa. 

361. 

Of the three stems conjoined in these data. New Guinea lacks the Poly- 
nesian puaka. Therefore I have omitted the phonetic collation of the 
material. The data are so ordered, however, that it will be easy to follow 
the ramifications of the stems poro and po in this region. Nowhere in this 
mass of material does any middle term appear by which we may certify 
ourselves that poro and po are homogenetic. 

What, now, is the position of these three dozen languages of New Guinea 
from which we have extracted material, some more and some less satis- 
factory? In 1892, and again in 1894, Dr. Sidney Herbert Ray declared 
them Melanesian. In 1907, in the linguistic volume of the Cambridge 
reports, he continues this designation with renewed argument in its behalf. 
In 19 10 Dr. Seligmann, working upon this material and a valuable supple- 
ment of his later collection, follows this leadership and designates the people 
of the eastern Gulf of Papua and the continuing coast and islands well along 
into the Louisiade Archipelago as Melanesian. At the point of demarca- 
tion in the Gulf of Papua, approximately at Cape Possession, set down by 
these students, there is a difference in the people ; more than the language 
shows it. They have decided that the difference is one between Papuans 
and Melanesians. 

In this inquiry we shall devote no attention to the differences of physical 
appearance, to the diversity of custom of life ; we are limited to the evidence 
which ma)'^ be found to he in language. 

What, then, is a Melanesian? In Dr. Ray's studies the men eastward of 
Cape Possession who differ from the men living westward of that boundary 
point are the Melanesians of New Guinea. We are then to discover whence 
he derives his knowledge of the Melanesians. It is from Dr. Codrington 
that he has drawn — from the same work which we have been so glad to 
use in this work, albeit to a far different conclusion. 



490 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Assuming for the present, and only for the present, a standard Mela- 
nesian, we must consider how that element could be communicated to the 
New Guinea coast. Either the inhabitants of the Gulf of Papua voyaged 
to some place of Melanesian culture, remained sufficiently long to acquire 
the Melanesian element they are considered now to possess, and voyaged 
home again; or else the Melanesians put to sea from their own lands, 
colonized the New Guinea coast, and stirvive in these settlements discrete 
from the Papuan autochthons. Either movement predicates navigation. 
The Melanesians are notoriously not a seagoing race ; with very few excep- 
tions their art of canoe building has advanced no greater distance than is 
required for the construction of light dugouts in which the single paddler 
scarcely dares follow the fish outside the still lagoon water within his reef. 

The seamanship of the coastal peoples of New Guinea is of no better 
order ; when the most adventurous of all this race sets forth upon its annual 
sago voyage, the putting to sea remains so unusual to their custom on the 
water that it is surrounded with all the formality of religious rites. It is 
not like the free adventure of the hardy seaman who hoists sail on the 
canoe in which he has confidence, trims the sheet to force the wind to work 
for him, and gaily sails to a distant port, all in the day's work. The voyage 
of the New Guinea traders of pots for sago is no more than across the head 
of the gulf, from Motu to Elema, yet it can be accompUshed only with the 
favor of fair winds; the return voyage can not be made until the wind 
changes in the seasonal break of the monsoon. Even the name of the vessel 
which has specially to be compacted for this voyage shows that its navi- 
gation is a foreign art, for lakatoi is a survival from something borrowed ; 
it is a mutant of vaka-tolu, which we have no difficulty in interpreting as 
"three boats," and that is true to the naval architectiu-e, for the Motu man 
fears the sea so cordially that he will not allow even his zeal for trading to 
trust himself to the waves in anything less stable than three boats lashed 
together. Whether the fleets of Motu went to northern Melanesia or Mela- 
nesia came to the Gulf of Papua, we are confronted by the need of canoe- 
craft and seamanship which has utterly vanished. Neither voyage could 
be repeated in these days ; the people at each end have not the boats nor 
the ability to sail them ; they fear the sea. 

On either side these folk who fear the sea we have the clear record of a 
race who made the sea their own, even to its empty limit, who have adven- 
tured such voyages to distant lands and a safe return as proved beyond 
the power of our own race until four centuries ago. 

Dr. Ray rests his Melanesian identification upon the Melanesian of Dr. 
Codrington's study. In this volume we have worked intimately over that 
Melanesian possession. We have found no language which we might estab- 
lish as the standard Melanesian, no Ursprache from which the jangling 
multiplicity of languages might be shown to derive. There is none such; 
there is no standard Melanesian. In these data we have examined the 
element common to the languages from Moanus to the southern tip of New 
Caledonia. We have found this element everywhere reducible to its par- 
entage ; we have found it Polynesian material borrowed by ruder people. 

The same identification holds when we examine the data collected in 
Torres Straits. It is Polynesian material. It would have been possible 



THE SOUTHERN GATEWAY. 491 

for voyagers from the Gulf of Papua to some Melanesian island, for colonists 
coming out of Melanesia, to bring this Polynesian content of the Melanesian 
speech. But the language record militates against this. As between dif- 
ferent languages on the New Guinea coast we have found differences which 
indicate secondary borrowing, but these readily reduce to well-marked foci 
on the same coast; as to the material segregated at these foci, their char- 
acter is clear: they are primary loans of the Polynesian. 

On the strength of such material as was then available from the Motu, 
I had no hesitation in adopting that language as establishing a proof point 
of the swarm of Polynesian migration through Torres Straits, the first point 
fixing the course to which, from its ultimate destination, I have assigned 
the designation of the Viti Stream. This newly accessible material but 
confirms the former conclusion; instead of a single early station on that 
course we now have a number and all confirmatory. 

The Torres Straits stations, with two exceptions, are all along the coast. 
The two exceptions are Mabuiag and Miriam, which Dr. Ray assigns respec- 
tively to the provinces of Australian and Papuan speech. Although the 
vocabularies are the largest in our possession from the region, the material 
which they have contributed to these studies is the least ; six vocables from 
Mabuiag and three from Miriam are all that may be associated with the 
Proto-Samoan. On the map these islands seem to lie in the fairway for 
any voyage through the straits; it would seem that there the Polynesian 
influence should be at its maximum. But in the conditions of Proto- 
Samoan sailing these islands were remote. The Polynesians were sailors, 
but they were not bigoted in their navigation. Hardy to risk the unknown 
expanses of open sea when the sky lay empty before them, they preferred 
the greater certainty of a coast to follow; any shore, even when it lay alee, 
served to deflect their course. This is a part of their seamanship which we 
have already had to consider when examining the courses through the 
Solomons and the New Hebrides. It is this facility of coastwise voyaging 
which has established for us so many points of Polynesian influence along 
the New Guinea shore from the great g^lf to the remote eastern islands. 

In conclusion we judge that these languages of New Guinea that have 
been called Melanesian are susceptible of correlation with languages situ- 
ated geographically in Melanesia ; that such correlation rests almost wholly 
on the vocables here examined ; that this element common to Torres Straits 
and Melanesia is common to Melanesia and to Polynesia. Therefore the 
result of the investigation is not the establishment of a distinctively Mela- 
nesian content in the languages limited by Motu and Nada, but the asso- 
ciation of that content through the Melanesian with the earliest type of 
the Polynesian. As the result of this added study we now find the southern 
gateway out of Indonesia most satisfactorily established. 



APPENDIX III. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



I have been permitted to publish in the Bulletin of the American Geo- 
graphical Society (vol. xli, pages 305-343) a far more extended list of the 
works which have contributed to the foregoing studies. Since that publi- 
cation is readily accessible I have restricted this bibliography to the purely 
linguistic works upon which I have drawn for this material. A few of 
general applicability are grouped as General, the remainder will be found 
under the name of the language upon which they bear, with such repetitions 
of authorities cited as will be found to facilitate reference. — W. C. 

General, 

Brandstetter, Renward. Eine Prodromus zu einem vergleichenden Worterbuch der 

malaio-polynesischen Sprachen fiir Sprachforscher und Ethnographen. 

Luzern: E. Haag, 1906, pp. 74. 
Churchill, William. Duplication by Dissimilation. American Journal of Philology, 

XXX, i-]i. 
Duplication Mechanics in Samoan and their Functional Values. American 

Journal of Philology, xxix, 33. 
Principles of Samoan Word Composition. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 

xiv, 24. 
Root Reducibility in Polynesian. American Journal of Philology, xxvii, 

369- 
Samoan Phonetics in the Broader Relation. Journal of the Polynesian 

Society, xvii, 79, etc. 
Weather Words of Polynesia. Memoirs of the American Anthropological 

Association, ii, i, 1907. 
Codrington, R. H. The Melanesian Languages. Oxford: ClarendonPress,iSS5,pp. 

via, 572. 

Crawfurd, John. On the Malayan and Polynesian Languages and Races. Journal 
of the Ethnological Society, London, i, 330. 

Finck, Franz Nikolaus. Die Wanderungen der Polynesier nach .dem Zeugnis ihrer 
Sprachen. Berlin: Nachrichten von der Koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wis- 
' senschaften zu Gottingen, pkilologisch-historische Klasse, 1909, Heft 3, 308. 

Gabelentz, Hans Conon von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen nach ihrem gram- 
matischen Bau und ihrer Verwandtschaft unter sich und mit den malaiisch- 
polynesischen Sprachen. Aus dem VIII Bande der Abhandlungen der 
Kn'niglich. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften. Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 
i860, pp. 266. 

Id., zweite Abhandlung. Des VII Bandes der Abhandlungen der philologisch- 

historischen Classe der Koniglich. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissen- 
schaften No. I. Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1873, pp. 186. 

Gabelentz, Georg von der, und Adolf Bernard Meyer. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der 
melanesischen, mikronesischen und papuanischen Sprachen, ein erster 
Nachtrag zu Hans Conon von der Gabelentz Werke "Die melanesischen 
Sprachen." Des VIII Bandes der A bhandlungen der philologisch-historischen 
Classe der Kb'nigl. S&chsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften No. IV. 
Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1882, pp. 170. 

493 



494 THE POIvYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

General — continued 

Macdonaid, Daniel. New Hebrides Linguistics, Introductory, Three New Hebrides 

Languages: Efatese, Eromangan, Santo. Melbourne, 1889: Printed at 

the Expense of the Trustees of the Melbourne Public Library, pp. 134. 
Oceania, Linguistic and Anthropological. Melbourne: M. L. Hutchinson, 

1889, pp. xii, 218, plates 7. 
The Oceanic Languages, their Grammatical Structure, Vocabulary and 

Origin. London: Henry Frowde, 1907, pp. xv., 352, 2 maps. 
South Sea Languages, a Series of Studies on the Language of the New 

Hebrides and Other South Sea Islands. Vol. II: Tangoan-Santo, Malo, 

Malekula, Epi (Baki and Bierian), Tanna and Futuna. Melbourne, 1891 : 

Printed at the Expense of the Trustees of the Public Library, Museum and 

National Gallery of Victoria, pp. xxvi, 281. 
MUller, Friedrich. Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novara ura die Erde in 

den Jahre 1857, 1858, 1859 under den Befehlen des Commodore B. von 

Wullerstorf-Urbair: LinguistischerTheil. Wien: Kaiserliche Akademie der 
, Wissenschaften, 1867. (IV Abtheilung: Malayo-polynesische Sprachen, 

pp. 267-357.) 
Quatrefages, A. de. Les Polynesiens et Leurs Migrations. Paris: Arthus Bertrand, 

n. d., pp. 200, 4 charts. 
Ray, Sidney H. The Common Origin of the Oceanic Languages. Extract Journal 

of the Polynesian Society. 
Schmidt, P. W. Uber das Verhaltniss des melanesischen Sprachen zu den poly- 

nesischen und untereinander. Wien, 1899: Sitzungsberichte der Kais. 

Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, philosophisch-historische Classe, 

Band CXLI, 6, pp. 93. 
Smith, S. Percy. Hawaiki: The Whence of the Maori: Being an Introduction 

to the Native History of Rarotonga. Wellington: Whitcombe and Tombs, 

1898, pp. 128. 
Hawaiki: The Original Home of the Maori, with a Sketch of Polynesian 

History. Second edition, enlarged and mostly rewritten. Wellington: 

Whitcombe and Tombs, 1904, pp. 223. 
The same, third edition. Wellington: Whitcombe and Tombs Limited, 1910, 

pp. 301. 
Tregear, Edward. The Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary. Wellington, 

N. Z.: Whitcombe and Tombs, n. d., pp. xxiv, 676. 
Turner, George. Samoa a hundred years ago and long before, together with notes 
on the cults and customs of 23 other islands in the Pacific. With a preface 
by E. B. Tylor. London: Macmillan and Co., 1884, pp. xvi, 395. 

Ahtiago 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Alite 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 
P- 39. 

Alo Teqel 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 355. 

Amblaw 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Amboina 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 



BIBUOGRAPHY. 495 

Ambrym 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 38 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 449. 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 
Aneityum 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 477. 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 

Inglis, John. A dictionary of the Aneityumese Language; in two parts: I. Anei- 
tyumese and English; II. English and Aneityumese; also, Outlines of 
Aneityumese Grammar; and an Introduction Containing Notices of 
the Missions to the Native Races and Illustrations of the Principles and 
Peculiarities of the Aneityumese Language. London: Williams andNorgate, 
1882, pp. 200. 

Aniwa 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 123 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

Arag 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 431. 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen (Vun Marama) . 
AWAIYA 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
AWALAMA 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
Baki 

Fraser, R. M. A Grammar of the Baki Language of Epi, New Hebrides. (With 
vocabulary.) (In Macdonald's South Sea Languages II, 73.) 
Balade 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 

Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 
Batumerah 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
BlERIAN 

Fraser, R. M. Grammar of the Bierian Language of the Island of Epi, New Hebrides. 
(With vocabulary.) (In Macdonald's South Sea Languages II, 98.) 
BOLANGHITAM 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

BONGU 

Hanke, A. Grammatik und Vokabularium der Bongu-Sprache (Astrolabe-bai, 
Kaiser- Wilhelmsland) ; mit einer Karte, einer wortvergleichenden Tabelle 
von neun Orten des Astrolabegebietes und einem Vokabularium der 
Sungumana-Sprache. Berlin: Arckiv fur das Studium deutscher Kolonial- 
sprachen, Band viii, Commissionsverlag von Georg Reimer, 1909, pp. xii, 
252, I map. 
BONIKI 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
BOUTON 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 



496 THE POIyYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

BUGOTU 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 546. 

BUKA 

Ray, Sidney H. Mittheilungen iiber drei Dialekte der Salomon-Inseln. Zeitschrijt 
jiir afrikanische und oceanische Sprachen ii, 54. 
BUKABUKA 

Hutchin, J. J. K. Traditionsand some wordsof the language of Danger or Pukapuka 
Island. Journal of the Polynesian Society, xiii, 173. 
BULULAHA 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 
P- 39- 
BuRU Islands 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words in the dialects of Cajeli, 
Massaratty and Amblaw. Samoa, p. 354. 

Caimarian 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Cajeli 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Celebes 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words in the dialects of Bolang- 
hitam, Bouton, Menado, Salayer. Samoa, p. 354. 

Ceram 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words in the dialects of Ahtiago, 
Awaiya, Caimarian, Gah, Teluti, Tobo, Wahai. Samoa, p. 354. 

Chamorro 

Fritz, Georg. Chamorro-Worterbuch : in zwei Theilen, Deutsch-Chamorro und 
Chamorro-Deutsch. Auf der Insel Saipan, Marianen, gesammelt. Berlin: 
Archiv fur das Studium deutscher Kolonialsprachen, Band ii, Commissions- 
verlag "van Georg Reimer, 1904, pp. vi, 124. 
Deni 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 486. 

DOBU 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
DoURA 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
DUAURU 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 

Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

Duke of York 

Brown, G. Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain and New Ireland 

(contains a vocabulary of 58 words.) Journal of the Royal Geographical 

Society, 1877, 137. 
Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 69 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Ray, Sidney H. Texts in the languages of the Bismarck Archipelago (Duke of 
York texts with bibliography.) Zeitschrift fur afrikanische und oceanische 
Sprachen, i, 334. 

Kbon 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 123 words. Samoa, p. 354. 



bibliography. 497 

Bpate 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 471. 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 

Macdonald, Daniel. The Oceanic Languages, their Grammatical Structure, Vocab- 
ulary and Origin (Efate dictionary). London: Henry Frowde, 1907, pp. 
^""y 352, 2 maps. 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabularies of 119 and 121 words, dissimilar, one 
showing a strong Polynesian content. Samoa, p. 354. 

Bpi (see Baki, Bierian.) 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 51 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 469. 

Eromanga 

Codrington, R, H. Comparative vocabulary of 43 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 
Gordon, J. D. Sketch of the Eromangan grammar. (In Macdonald's Three New 

Hebrides Languages.) 
Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 128 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

BspiRiTu Santo 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 69 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 441. 

Gordon, J. D. Sketch of the Santo grammar and vocabulary. (In Macdonald's 
Three New Hebrides Languages.) 
Fagani 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 499. 

Fakaapo 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 1 13 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Fotuna 

Gunn, Dr. William. Grammar of the language of Futuna. (With vocabulary.) 
(In Macdonald's South Sea Languages II, 163.) 
Futuna 

Gr^zel, Pere. Dictionnaire Futunien-FrauQais avec notes grammaticales. Paris: 
Maisonneuve et Cie., 1878, pp. 304. 
Gah 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Galavi 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
GalE]vA 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Galoma 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Gani 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Gilbert Islands 

Bingham, Hiram. A Gilbertese-English Dictionary. Boston: American Board of 
Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1908, pp. viii, 179. 



498 THK POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

GiLOLO 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words in the Dialects of Galela 
and Gani. Samoa, p. 354. 

Gog 

Codrington, R. H. Comparativevocabulary of yowords. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Laguages, p. 367. 

GUADALCANAR 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 
Guam 

Safford, William Edwin. The Chamorro language of Guam. American Anthro- 
pologist, vols. 5-7. 

Hawaii 

Andrews, Lorrin. A dictionary of the Hawaiian language, to which is appended 
an English-Hawaiian vocabulary and a chronological table of remarkable 
events. Honolulu, H. I.: printed by Henry M. Whitney, 1865, pp. xvi, 

559- 
Emerson, J. S. He hoakakaolelo no na huaolelo Beritania i mea kokua i na kanaka 
Hawaii e ao ana ia olelo. Lahainaluna: Kulanui, 1845, pp. x, 184. 

Hula 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
Java 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Kabadi 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Kalil 

See Stephan und Grabner: New Ireland. 

Keapara 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
King 

See Stephan und Grabner: New Ireland. 

Kiriwina 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
KlVIRI 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
KUBIRI 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
KWAGILA 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Lakon 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 377. 

Lamassa 

See Stephan und Grabner: New Ireland. 

Lambell 

See Stephan und Grabner: New Ireland. 

Lariko 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Laur 

See Stephan und Grabner: New Ireland. 

Liang 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 



BIBUOGRAPHY. 499 

LiFU 

A. C. Notes grammaticales sur la langue de Lifu d'aprfes les manuscrits du P. F. P. 

Paris: Maisonneuve et Cie., 1882, pp. 72. 
Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 
Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 122 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

LlUENIUA 

Parkinson, R. Die ostlichen Inseln. (Dreissig Jahre in der Siidsee, pp. 513-564.) 
Thilenius, Dr. Q. Ethnographische Ergebnisse aus Melanesien: erster Theil, 
Reisebericht; die polynesischen Inseln an der Ostgrenze Melanesiens. 
Halle: Nova Acta, Abhandlungen der Kaiserlichen Leopold-Carolinischen 
deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher, Band Ixxx, Nr. i, 1902, pp. 102, 
4 plates, I map, 9 text illustrations. 

Lo 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 391. 

Mabuiag 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 88. 

Madagascar 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Marr^. Vocabulaire systdmatique, comparatif, des principales racines des langues 

Malgache et Malayo-Polyn^siennes, n. p., 1885, pp. 83-214. 
Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 
Maewo 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 408. 

Makura 

Tregear, Edward. The Language of Makura. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 

V, 187. 

Malekula 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 

Morton, Alex. Grammar of the Language Spoken at Pangkumu, Malekula, Noticing 
Occasionally a Dialect Spoken North of Pangkumu and Beginning at a 
Village Called Rukumbu. (With vocabulary.) (In Macdonald's South 
Sea Languages, II, 34.) 

Malo 

Landels, J. D. Outline Grammar of Maloese as Spoken on the West Side of Malo, 
New Hebrides. (With vocabulary.) (In Macdonald's South Sea Lan- 
guages, II, 15.) 

Manahiki 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 126 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Mangareva 

Tregear, Edward. A Dictionary of the Mangareva (or Gambier) Islands. Published 
under the Authority of the Board of Directors of the New Zealand Institute. 
Wellington: John Mackay, Government Printing Office, 1899, pp. 121. 

Marquesas 

Dordillon, I. R. Grammaire et dictionnaire de la langue des iles Marquises. Paris: 
Imprimerie Belin Frkres, 1904, pp. 294, 205. 



500 THE POIvYNEjSIAN WANDERINGS. 

Marshali. Islands 

Erdland, August. Worterbuch und Grammatik der Marshall-Sprache nebst ethno- 
graphischen Erlauterungen und kurzen Sprachiibungen. Berlin: Archiv 
fiir das Studium deutschen Kolonialsprachen. Band iv, Druck und Kommis- 
sionsverlag von Georg Reimer, 1906, pp. xii, 248. 

Qabelentz, Q. von der, und A. Meyer. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der melanesischen, 
mikronesischen und papuanischen Sprachen, 1882. 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 

Hernsheim, Franz. Beitrag zur Sprache der Marshall-Inseln. Leipzig: i88o, 
pp. 28. 

Senfft, A. Worterverzeichniss der Sprache der Marshall-Insulaner. Zeitschrift 
fiir afrikanische und oceanische Sprachen, v, 79. 

Steinbach-Grosser. Worterbuch der Marshall-Sprache nach hinterlassenen Papieren 
des verstorbenen Stabsarztes Dr. Edwin Steinbach (vom 1891 bis 1894, 
Regierungsarzt in Jaluit, Marshall-Inseln) umgearbeitet und herausge- 
geben von Herman Grosser, Direktor der Jaluit-Gesellschaft zu Hamburg. 
Hamburg: L. Friederichsen und Co., 1902, pp. x, 126. 

Massaratty 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Matabbllo 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Mayapo 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

MEKBO 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Menado 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
MERIvAV 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 357. 

MiLLE 

Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

Miriam 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 131. 
MiSIMA 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

MOANUS 

Meier, Jos. Berichtigungen zu Dr. Schnee's Mitteilungen iiber die Sprache der 
Modnus. Anthropos, i, 210, 472. 
MOIKI 

Ray, Sidney H. Mittheilungen liber drei Dialekte der Salomon-Inseln. Zeitschrift 
fiir afrikanische und oceanische Sprachen, ii, 54. 
MORELLA 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

MOSIN 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 350. 

MOTA 

Codrington, R. H., and J. Palmer. A Dictionary of the Language of Mota, 
Sugarloaf Island, Banks Islands, with a Short Grammar and Index. 
London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1896, pp, xxiii, 312. 



BIBWOGRAPHY. 501 

MOTLAV 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 310. 

MOTU 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 55 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

MUGULA 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

MUKAWA 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

MURARE 

Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

Murray Island (see Miriam.) 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 52 words. Melanesian Languages, 
P- 39- 

MURUA 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Mysol 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Nada 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Nengone 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 69 words. Melanesian Languages, 

k. P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 478. 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 125 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

New Britain 

Bley, B. Grundziige der Grammatik der Neu-Pommerschen Sprache an der 
Nordkiiste der Gazellen-Halbinsel. Zeitschrift fur afrikanische und ocean- 
ische Sprachen, Hi, 85. 

Parkinson, R. Dressig Jahre in der Siidsee: Land und Leute, Sitten und Gebrauche 
im Bismarckarchipel und auf den deutschen Salamoinseln. Herausge- 
geben von Dr. B. Ankermann, Direktorial-Assistent am Koniglichen 
Museum fiir Volkerkunde zu Berlin. Stuttgart: Strecker und Schroder, 
1907, pp. xxii, 876, 4 maps, 56 plates, 141 text illustrations . 

Ray, Sidney H. Texts in the Languages of the Bismarck Archipelago. Zeitschrift 
fur afrikanische und oceanische Sprachen, i, 334 . 

New Caledonia 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 
Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 117 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Comparative vocabulary, source unknown, of 15 words in the languages of Balade, 
Duauru, Murare, Nikete and Yengiu. 

New Georgia 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 61 words. Melanesian Languages, 
P- 39- 



502 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

New Guinea 

Gabelentz und Meyer. Die Sprache von Erriib und Maer. 

Die Sprache in der Bai von Segaar. 

Miklucho-Maclay, N. Papua-Dialekte der Maclay-Kiiste in New Guinea. (In 

Gabelentz und Meyer.) 
Timoteo. Notes on the Kabadi dialect of New Guinea. Journal of the Polynesian 

Society. (?) 

New Ireland 

Brown, Q. Notes on the Duke of York Group, New Britain and New Ireland 

(contains a vocabulary of 19 words). Journal of the Royal Geographical 

Society, 1877, 137. 
Duffield, A. J. Notes on the inhabitants of New Ireland and its archipelago, their 

fine and industrial arts, customs and language (contains a vocabulary of 

350 words). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, i, 115. 
D'Urville, Dumont. Vocabulary of Port Praslin. Voyage de V Astrolabe, vol. ii, 

Philologie, p. 143. 
Qaimard. Vocabulary of Carteret Harbor. Voyage de V Astrolabe, ii, 143. 
Stephan, Emil, und Fritz Qraebner. Neu -Mecklenburg: die Kiiste von Umuddu 

bis Kap St. Georg. Forschungsergebnisse bei den Vermessungsfahrten 

von S. M. S. Mowe im Jahre 1904. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1907, pp. 

xii, 242. 

Nggao 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 555. 

Qabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen (Mahaga). 

Nggela 

Ray, Sidney H. Texts in the languages of the Solomon Islands. Zeitschrift fiir 

afrikanische und oceanische Sprachen, Hi, 103. 
Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 522. 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen (Anudha). 

NiFlLOLE 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 493. 

NiKETE 

Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

NlUE 

Tregear, Edward, and S. Percy Smith. A vocabulary and grammar of the Niue 
dialect of the Polynesian language. Wellington: By authority, John Mackay, 
Government Printer, 1907, pp. 179. 

Norbarbar 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 384. 

Nuguria 

See Liueniua. 

Nukumanu 

See Liueniua. 



BIBUOGRAPHY. 503 

NUKUORO 

Christian, F. W. Nukuoro vocabulary. Journal of the Polynesian Society (?). 
OlUN 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
Omba 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melatiesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 420. 

Paama 

Qabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 

Pak 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
^Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 332. 

Pala 

Peekel, P. Qerliard. Grammatik der Neu-Mecklenbuigischen Sprache speziell der 
Pala-Sprache. Berlin: Archiv fiir das Studium deutscher Kolonialsprachen, 
Band ix, Commissionsiierlag von Georg Reimer, 1909, pp. xiv, 216, i map. 

Panaieti 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

POKAU 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Port Moresby 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 35 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Rapanui 

Roussel, Pere Hippolyte. Vocabulaire de la langue de I'lle-de- Piques ou Rapanui. 

Louvain: Le Museon, nouvelle sSrie vol. ix, 159. 

Raqa 

Raj', Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Rarotonga 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabularj^ of 122 words. Samoa, p. 534. 

RORO 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

ROTUMA 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabular}' of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 401. 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 116 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

RuBI 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Saa 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
- — Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 516. 

Salayer 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. »Samoa, p. 354. 

Salibabo 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 



504 



THE POI^YNESIAN WANDERINGS. 



Samoa 

Churchill, William. A dictionary of Samoan speech. (MSS.) 

Samoa o le Vavau: Samoan contributions to Polynesian history. (MSS.) 

Samoan grammar: an evolutionary essay toward the comprehension of 

the speech method and linguistic mechanism of the Polynesian, a primordial 

language of the isolating type. (MSS.) 
Funk, Bernhard. Kurze Anleitung zum Verstandniss der samoanischen Sprache; 

Grammatik und Vokabularium ; nebst einem Anhange, meteorologische 

Notizen; mit einen Plan von Apia. Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler 

undSohn, 1893, pp. vi, 82. 
Neffgen, H. Deutsch-Samoanisches Konversationsbuch. 'O le tusi-fetalia'i fa'asia- 

mani ma fa'asamoa. Leipzig: Otto Picker, 1904, pp. Hi, 64. 
Grammatik der samoanischen Sprache nebst Lesestiicken und Worterbuch. 

Wien und Leipzig: A. Hartleben, n. d., pp. viii, 168. 
Newell, J. E. English and Samoan vocabulary ('O le fa'asologa'upu Peritania 

'ua fa'asamoaina). Being Part Hi of the Grammar and Dictionary of 

the Samoan Language, fourth edition, enlarged and revised. Malua, 

Samoa: London Missionary Society, 1905, pp. 158. 
Pratt, George. A grammar and dictionary of the Samoan language, with English 

and Samoan vocabulary. Third and revised edition. (A'^. P.) : Printed 

by the Religious Tract Society for the London Missionary Society, 1893, 

pp. viii, 416. 
Violette, L. Dictionnaire Samoa-Franfais- Anglais et Franfais-Samoa- Anglais pr6- 

cM6 d'une grammairede lalangue Samoa. Paris: Maisonneuve et Cie., 

1879, pp. xcii, 468. 

Sanguir 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Saparua 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Sariba 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Sasar 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 337. 

Savo 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

p. 39- 
— Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 559. 

Sesake 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 65 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 459. 

Gabelentz, H. C. von der Die melanesischen Sprachen. 



SiNAUGORO 

Ray, Sidney H. 

SUAU 

Ray, Sidney H. 

SuLU Islands 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Tagula 

Ray, Sidney H, 



Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
Expedition to Torres Straits Til, 482. 



Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 



BIBUOGRAPHY. 505 

Tahiti 

Jaussen, Tepano. Grammaire et dictionnaire de la langue Maorie, dialecte Tahitien. 
Paris: Neia i te Nenei Raa no Belin, 1898, pp. 388. 

Tami 

Bamler, Missionar. Bemerkungen zur Grammatik der Tamisprache: Vokabular 
der Tamisprache. Zeitschrift fur afrikanische und oceanische Sprachen, 
V, 198. 

Tangoan Santo 

Annand, J. A grammar of the Tangoan Santo language. (In Macdonald's South 

Sea Languages, II, i.) 
Tanna 

Gray, W. Grammar of the Weasisi-Tanna language, with notices of other Tanna 

dialects. (With vocabulary.) (In Macdonald's South Sea Languages, 

II, io8.) 
Gabelentz, H. C. von der. Die melanesischen Sprachen. 
Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 121 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 

Taupota 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Tauu 

See Liueniua. 
Tavara 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Teluti 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

TeoR 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

Tidore; 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

TOBO 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 

TOGEAN IsI/ANDS 

Rosenberg, C. B. H. von. De Togean-Eilanden (contains a vocabulary of 88 
words). Amsterdam: IVerken van het koninklijk Insiiiut voor Taal- 
Land- en Volkerkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie; tweede Afdeeling; afzonder- 
lijke Werken, 1865. 

Tonga 

Baker, Shirley Waldemar. An English and Tongan vocabulary, also a Tongan and 
English vocabulary, with a list of idiomatic phrases; and Tongan grammar. 
Auckland, N. Z.: pp. vi, 212, 44. 

Tongare;wa 

Smith, S. Percy. Tongarewa, or Penrhyn Island, and its people. Transactions 

of the New Zealand Institute, xxii, 85. 

Tubetube; 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 

Ugi 

Ray, Sidney H. Mittheilungen iiber drei Dialekte der Salomon-Inseln. Zeitschrift 
fur afrikanische und oceanische Sprachen, ii, 54. 

UlyAWA 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 512. 



506 THE POLYNESIAN WANDERINGS. 

Uni 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III, 482. 
Uvea 

A. C. Dictionnaire Latin-Uvea a I'usage des elfeves du coUfege de Lano par les 
missionaires maristes revu par le P. A. C, pretre mariste. Ports: Librairie 
Poussielgue Freres, 1886, pp. iv, 186. 

Vaturanga 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 539. 

VlTl 

A. C. Essai de grammaire de la langue de Viti d'aprfes les manuscrits des mission- 
aires maristes coordines. Paris: Poussielgue Freres, 1884. 

Hazlewood, David, and James Calvert. A Fijian-English dictionary and a grammar 
of the language. By the late David Hazlewood, Wesleyan missionary. 
Second edition, with map, edited by James Calvert. London: Sampson 
Low, Marsion and Co. (1872), pp. 282, 64. 

Moore, William. Handbook of the Fijian Language. Levuka: G. L. Griffiths, 
188 1, pp. 40. 
VOLOW 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p . 322. 

VURAS 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 

P- 39- 
Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 345. 

Wahai 

Turner, George. Comparative vocabulary of 59 words. Samoa, p. 354. 
Wango 

Codrington, R. H. Comparative vocabulary of 70 words. Melanesian Languages, 
P- 39- 

Grammar. Melanesian Languages, p. 505. 

WBDAIJ 

Ray, Sidney H. Expedition to Torres Straits III,"482. 
Yengin 

Comparative vocabulary of 15 words, source unknown. 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

a-mutations 50, 121, 154,472 

o 208 

abrasion, final 200, 203, 

205,228,252,377 
abrasion, frontal 192, 198, 206, 208, 

213.225,235,254,273 
abrasion, medial 191, 212, 213, 225, 

237.259.302,385.422 

ajafine 337 

afl. 277 

afisi 243 

age of Melanesian-Polynesian . . 147 

Ahtiago, check-list 152 

di t 208 

a'a 318 

a'au 197 

a'e 216, 402, 488 

aki, verb-formative 291 

ala 403, 488 

alei 206 

Alexander, William DeWitt. ... 387 

Alite, check-list 55 

phonetic table 60 

AUor, check-list 152 

alo 193 

dlo 326 

Alo Teqel, check-list 55 

phonetic table 61 

alunga 241 

ama 104, 488 

Amblaw, check-list 152 

Amboyna, check-list 152 

Ambrym, check-list 55 

phonetic table 62 

Amharic, check-Hst 175 

amo 201 

Andrews, Lorrin 278, 287 

Aneityum, check-list 55 

phonetic table 63 

animals, introduced 16 

Aniwa 3, 142 

arm 417, 489 

angi 317 

apula 259 

apungaleveleve 36 1 

Arabia, Oceanic motherland ... 27 

Arabic, check-list 175 

Arag, check-list 55 

phonetic table 64 

Aramaic, check-list 175 

Arishtan Shar 169 

Aru, check-list 152 

Aryan origin 25, 176, 178 

aspiration 318, 346 

Melanesian mutations 135 

triply placed 133, 303 

asu 286,48: 

ata 197 

atali'i 194 



PAGE. 

ate 320, 483 

ati 198, 479 

aue 289 

Avaiki-te-Varinga 21 

Awaiya, check-list 152 

Awalama, check-list 435 

phonetic table 437 

Baju, check-list ■ 152 

Baker, Shirley Waldemar 8, 225, 409 

Baki, check-list 55 

phonetic table 65 

Baliyon, check-list 152 

Baravon, check -list 55 

phonetic table 66 

Basakrama, check-list 152 

Batak, check-list 152 

Batavia, check-list 152 

Batumerah, check -list 152 

Bauro, check-list 55 

phonetic table. 66 

be 424 

Belaga, check -list 56 

phonetic table 67 

Bellona Island, see Moiki. 

Beu, check-Hst 152 

Bicol, check-Hst 152 

Bierian, check-list 56 

phonetic table 68 

Binue, check -list 152 

bird of paradise 22 

Bismarck Archipelago, change 

of names 2, 14 

black 331 

blind 331 

boiling 248, 409 

Bolanghitam, check-list 152 

Bongu 182 

Boniki, check-list 435 

phonetic table 438 

bonito, courtesy language 352 

Bopp, Franz; Polynesian theory 19, 25, 

27.32, 183 

Borneo, check-list 152, 172 

borrowing, second-hand 199, 264, 

323.324.389 

Bougainville Id., check-list 56 

phonetic table. 69 

Bouton, check-list 152, 172 

brain 224 

bridegoom 6 

Brierly Island, check-list 56 

phonetic table. . 69 

Brissi West, check-list 152, 172 

brown color 330 

Brumer Island, check-list 56 

phonetic table. . 69 

Bual, check-list 152 

Buelow, W. von 4 

507 



508 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Bug!, check-list 152 

Bugotu, check-list 56 

phonetic table 69 

Buka, check-list 56 

phonetic table 70 

traces of Polynesians. . . 15 

Bululaha, check-list 56 

phonetic table 71 

Buru, check-list 152, 172 

Caimarian, check-list 152 

Cajeli, check-list 152 

canoe voyaging conditions. . . 139, 490, 491 

cardinal points 216 

Caroline Islands, Polynesian mi- 
gration 14, 16, 17 

castaway drift 14, 45, 138, 144, 148 

Celebes 21, 172 

Ceram, check-list 152 

mentioned 21, 172,373 

cerumen 284 

Chaldee, check-list 175 

Chamorri, check-list 152 

Champa, check-list 152 

cicatricial ornament 22 

circumcision 265 

closed roots, a Proto-Samoan 

distinction 48, 148 

coconut derivatives 224 

Codrington, R. H 45, 268, 296, 297, 

303. 307. 332, 357. 365. 366, 
371, 375> 388, 392,395,403 

concrete expressions 266 

consonantal modulants 201, 219, 268, 

298, 314. 320, 349, 350, 403, 411 

consonants, easy to acquire. ... 36 

mutation direction. 133, 177 

cookery 248, 409 

count by fingers 365 

course, determination of. 140, 141, 146, 216 

courtesy speech 234, 236, 352, 374 

crop colonies 139 

currents, influence of 16 

cutting 261 

Dana, James Dwight iii 

darkness 331 

day 332 

deafness 284 

death 291, 374 

Deeken, Richard, "Maniiia 

Samoa" 18 

definitions, clumsy 8 

squinting 8 

Deni, check-list 56 

phonetic table 71 

determinant composition 255, 

268,341,394 

diphthongs 339 

direction constants 216 

Dobu, check-list 435 

phonetic table 439 

Domara 440 

Dorey, check-list 152 

Doura, check-list 435 

phonetic table 440 



PAGB. 

drift theory of migration i4i 45, 

138, 144, 148 

Duba 440 

Dufaure Island, check-list 56 

phonetic table . 72 

Duke of York, check-list 56 

phonetic table . . 72 

duplication 2 10 

Dyak, check-list 152 

e-mutations 51, 121, 154,472 

echo words 302 

Efat6, Turner's two word-lists. . 10 
under Proto-Samoan in- 
fluence 45, 46, 47 

Polynesian phonetics. ... 42 

Viti phonetics 35, 37, 42 

Viti-Samoan phonetics . . 38, 41 

Macdonald's dictionary. . 6 

efu 313.482 

EUice Group, migration 17, 180 

eneene 194 

English borrowings from Poly- 
nesian 264 

Enua-kura 22 

Ende, check-list 152 

Epi, check-list 56 

phonetic table 73 

equatorial currents 16 

Erakor vocabulary 10 

Eromanga, check-list 56 

phonetic table 74 

Ethiopic, check-list 175 

ethnic swarm 170 

exclamation 289, 402 



/-mutations 54, 129, 133, 

160, 168, 178, 276, 

jafanga 

fafangu 

fafano 

fafau 

fafine 

Fagani, check-list 

phonetic table 

fai 

faititili 

ja'a 

fa'afisi 

fa'afou 

fa'alanu 

fa' alangilangi 

ja'alelefu 

fa'alolo 

fa'alolongo 

fa'alongo 

fa'apoa 

fa'asau 

fa'asusu 

fa'aiuai . 

fa'atuluiulu 

Fanning Island, migration. . 

fanofano 

fano 

fangufangu 

fanua 

fdsi 



136. 137. 

303. 476 
269 
217 
194 
328 

337. 483 

56 

75 

218 

240 

269, 480 
277 

327,483 
396 
197 
313 
224 

399 
398 
276 
282 
410 
3" 
425 
17 
194 
226 
201 

341.484 
203 



INDEX. 



509 



PAGB. 

fata. 343 

faianinga 194 

fati 219 

fatu 228 

fahi 344 

fatu'ulu 228 

fatulau 229 

fatumanava 344 

fafunga 229 

fau 328 

fe 211,479 

feel 400 

fe'au 218 

felelei 42 1 

fenguingui 393 

fesulua'i 405 

fesuluna'i 405 

fetii 199 

fetiilele 421 

fia 271 

fifi 277 

Fiji, see Viti. 

Fileni 4 

fili 178, 290 

fingers in counting 365 

fisi 277 

fiso 196 

five, hand 364 

flight 295 

flora, provinces 17 

foanga 204 

foe 429 

folau 334 

fonoti 333 

foreign novelty 234, 259 

Fornander, Aryan theory 178, 184 

fotu 245 

Fotima, differenced in spelling . 3 

settlement 142, 285 

fou 327.483 

four, the perfect number 19 

frying 409 

fua 297, 426, 489 

fiiata 32 1 , 427 

fufula 202 

fufulu 275 

fufuti 276 

fui 292 

fula 202 

fuli 335 

fulu 267, 480 

fuliia 275 

funga 292, 427 

fusi 292 

futi 276 

futi 388,487 

Futuna, Tongafiti settlement .. . 287 

397,408,411 

Gah, check-list 152 

Galavi, check-list 435 

phonetic table 441 

Galela, check-list 152 

Galoma, check-list 435 

phonetic table 442 

Gani, check-list 152 

general migration theory 19 



PAGE. 

Gilbert Archipelago 17, 180, 274 

Gilolo, check-list 152 

mentioned 21, 172 

Gog, check-list 56 

Gog, phonetic table 76 

Goram, check-list 152 

Guadalcanar, check-list 56 

phonetic table ... 77 

Guaham, check-list 152 

fe-mutations 53, 126, 132, 135, 157, 

166,227,287,323,324,475 

hack 9, 205 

Halmahera 17 

hand activity 350 

hand, as five 364 

Havannah Harbor mission sta- 
tion 10, 1 1 

Hawaii, direct migration 44, 49, 262, 

279,337.346,408 
Sumatra voyage to. . . . 19 

Hawaiki 13, 17, 49, 184 

"Hawaiki" 20, 26, 179, 184 

hearing 40 1 

Hebrew, check-list 175 

hog 427 

Hula, check-list 435 

phonetic table 443 

Humboldt, Wilhelm von 19, 183 

i-mutations 51, 122, 155,472 

lai, check-list 56 

phonetic table. . 77 

ifo 262, 480 

i'a 350,484 

i'amanu 372 

ilo 429 

Ilocan, check-list 152 

Indonesia, common to both mi- 
gration theories . . 19 
Malayan settlement. 169 
Indonesian, community of speech 

with Polynesian. 151, 170 
contact with Poly- 
nesian 169 

not a linguistic link. 20 
Polynesian exit 

(Thilenius) 16 

infixation 212 

inu 376, 486 

isd 401 

isu 348, 484 

iti 230 

Java 21, 169, 184 

check-list 152 

Jobi, check-list 152 

^-mutations 52, 124, 131, 135, 

136, 156, 164,255,474 

'in Tongan 225 

Kabadi, check-list 56, 435 

phonetic table 78, 444 

Kabakada, check-list 56 

phonetic table 78 

'ai 191,478 

Kaili, check-list 152 



510 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Kaioa Island, check-list 152 

'a'a 318 

'a'asa 251 

'a'e 402, 488 

Kalil, check-list 56 

phonetic table 78 

'ama'ama 260 

'amu 277 

Kandayan, check-list 152 

kani 191, 478 

'apa'au 295 

'apata 295 

Kapingamarangi i5ii7 

'apu 246 

karavau 388 

'aii 355, 485 

'ato 255 

'au 218 

'au 278 

'au 295 

'auali'i 353 

'aualuma 295 

'au'auli 353 

Kawi, check-list 152 

Kayan, check-list 152 

Keakalo 444 

Keapara, check-list 435 

phonetic table 445 

'eli 347. 484 

'ete 256 

'i 219 

'iato 230 

'ie 196 

'i'ila 246 

'i'ite 294, 481 

'Hi 278,481 

'ili'ili 355 

Kilinailau, Polynesian settle- 
ment 15 

'iliola 356 

'inioa 296 

King, census 366 

check-list 56 

phonetic table 79 

'ini 279 

'iole 296 

Kiriwina, check-Hst 435 

phonetic table 446 

Kisa, check-list 152 

'isumu 148, 296 

Kiviri, check-list 435 

phonetic table 447 

Kiwa, sea of 13, 184 

'ofu 220 

Koita 447 

'o'ai 204 

'olo 220 

'ona 205 

'oti 256 

'oto 256 

Kramer, Dr. Augustin 265 

Kubiri, check-list 435 

phonetic table 448 

'■u.'u 349 

'uli 255 

'upenga 231 

'Upolu 23 



PAGE. 

'ititi 357.485 

Kwagfila, check-list 435 

phonetic table 448 

/-mutations 52, 123, 131, 135, 

136, 157, 165, 219, 223, 234, 268, 
300, 304, 305, 334, 361, 385, 473, 487 

la 304 

labials, last acquired in speech. . 332 

lingual mutation 136 

palatal mutation 136 

Melanesian difficulty. . . 42, 134, 
212, 263,332 

lae 304, 369 

ha. Farge, John 330 

Lakatoi language 186, 490 

la'au 353 

la'ei 209 

Lakon, check-list 56 

phonetic table 80 

la'u 209 

Idla 304 

lalau 397 

lalo 213, 216 

Lamassa, census 366 

check-list 56 

phonetic table 81 

Lambell, check-hst 56 

phonetic table 82 

Lampong, check-list 152 

Landa, check-list 152 

lami 396, 487 

langa 197 

langi 318, 324, 359, 485 

lango 360, 485, 487 

lango 257 

langofujti 384 

langoniunni 384 

langona 398 

Lariko, check-list 153 

Laur, check-list 56 

phonetic table 83 

lase 209 

last 246 

laso 297 

latele ; 238 

lau, sea 215 

lau 397. 487 

lau' a' a 318 

laulau 397 

Lauta iv 

lauulu 268 

lava 358 

lavalava 28 

lavasi 28 

lave 28 

lavea 231 

leangiangi 421 

lefu 313.482 

lele 421 

lelefu 313 

Lemaroro, check-list 56 

phonetic table 84 

leo 232 

leo 363 

Leon, check-list 56 

phonetic table 84 



INDEX. 



511 



Liang, check-list . . . 

lielievale 

Lifu, check-list 

phonetic table. 

like-like 

li'i 



■363.: 



liliu . . ., 

lima 

lingi 

Unguals, labial mutation. . 
palatal mutation 

liu 

Liueniua 3, 

Lo, check-list 

phonetic table. . , 

Lobo, check-list 

lofa 



lofia 

Logan, J. R., Polynesian theory 
lolo 



PAGE. 

153 

217 

56 

84 

176 

229,479 

234 
367,486 

233 
135 
136 

234 

15, 17,22,45,46, 142 

56 

85 

153 

28, 197 

368 
26 



lolo 

lolo'u . . 
longo. . . 
longona . 
lua'i. . . 
lue .... 



Lukunor, Polynesian settlement 

lulil 

lulua 



223 
368 
221 
398,487 
398 
279 

235 
22 

235 
279 



Efate 



435 
450 
153 



w-mutations 54, 128, 132, 136, 

137, 159, 167,253,378,476 

ma 298 

Mabuiag, check-list 

phonetic table 

Macassar, check-list 

Macdonald, Rev. Daniel. 

dictionary 

Madura, check-list 

maea 

Maewo, check-list 

phonetic table . 
Mai 

check-list 

phonetic table 

Polynesian settlement 

maja 

mdfine 

mafuli 

Magindano, check-list. . . . 

Mahri, check-list 

Mailu 

via'i 

ma'ini 

Makura, check-list 

phonetic table 



1,5 

153 

195 

56 

86 

4,45,46,47, 142 

.56 

86 

46 
194 
337 
335 
153 
175 
449 
379 
194 

57 
87 



malae 305, 369 

Malagasy, check-list 152 

malama 378 

malamalama 378 

Malanta, check-list 57 

phonetic table 87 

Malay, check-list 151 

race, early distory 169 

Malayan influence Post-Poly- 
nesian 322, 324, 335, 351, 357, 

360, 361, 373, 375, 380, 387, 398 



PAGE. 

Malayo-Polynesian family 20, 25, 26, 

170, 171, 173, 183 

Malekula, check-list 57 

phonetic table 87 

Malietoa, Savea the first 45 

Laupepa iv 

m.alingi 233 

Malo, check-list 57 

phonetic table 89 

m,dlu 375 

malu 370, 486 

m-alu 369 

mnnia 280 

maniae 194 

Mame, check-list 153 

Manahune traditions 22 

Manatolo, check-list 153 

manifini'fi 298, 481 

mano 195 

manu 218, 372, 486 

manu'a 234 

Manu'a 23 

Sumatra voyage to 19 

m.an.ga 280 

m,angungu 393 

mao 203 

-mao 206 

mapelu 217 

Marina, check-list 57 

phonetic table 90 

Marshall Islands 14 

masa 257 

masi 281 

niasina 406 

Massaratty, check-list 153 

Massim 449 

m.asunu 407 

masusu 207 

mata 299 

mata 380, 486 

Matabello, check-list 153 

matai 195 

maiaisau 195 

mata'u 301, 482 

matala 223 

matali'i 195 

matangi 317 

Matamatame 45, 180, 379 

mate 373 

Matema 142 

matt 281 

matolutolu i99> 238 

Matu, check-Hst 153 

matua 271, 311 

Matupit, check-list • 57 

phonetic table 91 

maw 207 

maua 207 

m.aui 258 

maunga I95 

Mayapo, check-list 153 

Mekeo, check-list 435 

phonetic table 449 

Melanesia, a geographical unit . . 2 
dialects abundant ... 10 
early history un- 
known 13 



512 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Melanesia, little attractive to 

voyagers 3 

mutation tables .... 59 

problems of i 

Melanesian contribution to Poly- 
nesia 148 

g 332 

races 13, 181 

Mele, check-list 57 

phonetic table 91 

vocabulary 10 

mele'i 253 

melomelo 300 

Menado, check-list 153 

Menankabau, check-list 153 

Merlav, check-list 57 

phonetic table 92 

metathesis 218, 223, 227, 230, 239, 241, 

262, 269, 275, 292, 295, 314, 317, 330, 

332, 346, 361, 371, 376, 377, 391, 413- 417 

mianga 375 

mimi 375 

Miriam, check-list 435 

phonetic table 450 

Misima, check-list 435 

phonetic table 451 

Modnus 147, 360 

check-list 57 

phonetic table 93 

Moiki 4, 45, 46, 142, 146 

molemole 244 

Molucca 15, 17 

check-list 153 

momona 281 

monkey 388 

Mon-Khmer 25 

mono 197, 333 

moon 330 

Morella, check-list 153 

Moriori migration 271, 335,414 

Mosin, check-list 57 

phonetic table 94 

Moso 299 

mosquito 386 

Mota, check-list 57 

phonetic table 96 

transitive verb suffix. . . . 305, 392 



Motlav, check-list 57 

phonetic table 95 

motu 383 

Motu, check-list 57 

phonetic table 98 

Polynesian settlement. . . 21, 147 
eastern Polynesian asso- 
ciations 349, 361 , 362, 385 

Mugula, check-list 435 

phonetic table 452 

mui 383 

Mukawa, check-list 435 

phonetic table 453 

muli 384 

Miiller, Friedrich 19, 26, 183 

Miiller, Max, Polynesian theory . 25,27, 

32.34.183 

mumu 383 

mumu 383 



viuna 

Murray Island, check-list 

phonetic table. . 

Murua, check-list 

phonetic table 

musumusu 

mutation, basic principles 

Indonesia-Melanesia- 
Polynesia 

by series 

Mysot, check-list 

myth fabrication 



w-mutations 53, 125, 

137,157.165,346, 

Nada, check-list 

phonetic table 

nafa 

namu 

ndmu 

Natalava, check-list 

phonetic table 

national life unknown 

natu 

navigation, Polynesian 

Navigators' Islands 

navu 

nefu 

nei 



nenefu 

Nengone, check-list 

phonetic table 

neutral vowel 

New Britain, check-list 

New Caledonia, check-list 

New Georgia, check-list 

phonetic table. . . 

New Guinea 14, 21, 22 

142,172, 173, 

check-list 

north coast voyages 
obstacle to Malayan 

settlement 

New Hanover 

New Hebrides 137, 140, 141, 

New Ireland, check-list 

New Zealand, direct migration.. 
262; 279,369,370,379, 

Nicobar, check-list 

Nifilole, check-list 

phonetic table 

nifo 

Ninigo 

Nisan, Polynesian settlement . . 

niu 

Niu-vSisila 

nofo 

nonu 

nonufi'afi'a 

Norbarbar, check -list 

phonetic table 

nuanga 

Nuclear Polynesia. . . .2, 19, 25,42 
Efate identifications . 

Nuguria 4, 15, 16 

check list 



PAGS. 

383 
57 
99 
435 
454 
383 
177 

163 

133 

153 

19 

132,135, 

386, 474 

435 

455 

234 

386, 487 

221 

57 

99 

170 

198,479 

21 

139 

208, 479 

313 
200 
313,482 
57 
99 
35,36 
57 
57 
57 
100 
.26, 141, 
180, 182 

57 
21 

141,173 

17 

145, 180 

57 

44. 49. 

408,423 

153 

58 

104 

302,482 

15.17 

15 

390, 487 

19 

259 

254 

254 

58 

105 

209 

,43,179 

43 

, 17, 142 

433 



INDEX. 



513 



PAGE. 

Nukumanu 4 

Nukuoro, Samoan settlement .22, 42, 346, 

360,385,415,419 

Sumatra voyage to . . 19 

nunu 209 

Nggao, check-list 57 

phonetic table 10 1 

Nggela, check-list 57 

phonetic table 102 

wg-mutations 52, 124, 131, 136, 137, 

156,163,233,349,473 

ngafa 204 

nga'e 204 

ngalolo 224 

ngalu 245 

ngasu 221 

ngata 258 

ngeli 388 

ngingili 393 

ngongo 196 

ngongolo 392 

ngu 393 

Nguna, check-list 58 

phonetic table 103 

ngutu 349 

o-mutations 51, 122, 155, 472 

Oceanic language, Macdonald's 

statement 26 

phonology 27 

race 26, 31, 32 

Oiun, check-list 435 

phonetic table 456 

olo 391 

Oraba, check-list 58 

phonetic table 106 

one 250 

Ongtong Java, see I/iueniua. 

opeope 249 

otaota 207 

oti 274,373 

/"-mutations 54. 130, i33> i35. 

136, 161, 168,264,477 

pa 274 

Paama, check-list 58 

phonetic table 107 

Pak, check-Ust 58 

phonetic table 107 

pa'angungu 393 

Pala, phonetic table 108 

palatals, labial mutation 136 

lingual mutation 136 

Palau Islands 16, 17 

palolo 8, 224 

Pampangas, check-list 153 

Panaieti, check-list 435 

phonetic table 457 

Pangasinan, check-list 153 

Pani, check-list 153 

papa 325 

particles 29 

Paumotu, a primitive type .... 311 

peau 244 

pepe 251,479 

pelu 217 

pelu'i 217 



PAGE. 

Philippine Islands 16, 172, 173 

Phoenix Group 180 

pig--; 427 

pi'opi'o 243 

pili 289 

Pilot chart, U. S. N. Hydro- 
graphic Office 18 

pHo 293,481 

plants, introduced 16 

Pleiades 195 

Po 330,483 

poa 276 

poapoa 221, 276 

Pokau, check-list 435 

phonetic table 458 

po'u 194 

polo, 253 

polata 253 

poloa'i 291 

Polynesian expulsion from In- 
donesia 170 

inclusions 4, 42, 45, 141 

migration 13, 25 

mutation tables ... 50 

origin 179.183 

verge. . . .4, 15, 42, 45, 142, 181 

pongipongi 330 

pongisa 330 

pork 428 

pottery 409 

pronouns 29 

prosit 259 

Proto-Samoan migration ... 38, 43, 45, 48, 

49, 50, 138, 179, 184, 246, 259, 

262, 285, 303, 312, 362, 379, 431 

pua'a 427 

pula 329, 483 

pule 196 

Pulotu 13 

pulou 206 

pulu 336 

pulupulu 336 

puni 333 

pUpu 202 

pupula 329 

pupulu 336 

pupuni 333 

pusa 244 

pute 293, 481 

Qakea, Polynesian settlement. . 46 

quality of Polynesian content. . 143 

r-grassey6 38, 121,315,327 

rain, sensitiveness to 16 

Raluana, check-list 58 

phonetic table 109 

Rapanui, check-list 433 

Raqa, check-list 436 

phonetic table 459 

Rason, Capt. Ernest, R. N. . . . 11 
Ray, Sidney H., Melanesian 

studies 4, 182,252,489 

reinforced consonants 38, 199, 

223,264,324 

Rennel Island 4, 45, 46, 142, 146 

Retan, check-list 58 



514 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 
109 
436 
460 
153 
58 
109 
436 
461 

ruma 307, 482 



Retan, phonetic table . . . 
Roro, check-list 

phonetic table . . . . 

Rotti, check-list 

Ruavatu, check-list 

phonetic table . 
Rubi, check-Ust 

phonetic table. 



j-mutations 53, 126, 

158, 166,203,247, 

Saa, check-list 

Saa, phonetic table 

Saba myth 

sailing quality 

sa'e 

sa'o 

sala 

Salayer, check-list 

ntotu o Salaia 

Salibabo, check-list 

Salu, check-list 

Sambiwa, check-list 

Samoa 14. 17. ^9, 23. 49. 

Samoa stream 147, 

samusaniu 

Sandol, check-list 

Sanguir, check-list 

Santa Cruz Group 

Santo, check-list 

phonetic table 



Saparua, check-list . . . 

Sariba, check-list 

phonetic table 
Saru, check-list 



sasao 

Sasar, check-list 

phonetic table . 
sasau 



sasau 

Sassac, check-list. . 
Satawal, check-list . 



saupapa 

saUpapa 

Savai'i 

sarali 

Savea, the first Malietoa 

Savo, check-list 

Savo, check-list 

phonetic table 

Savu, check-list 

Sawaiori, proposed by Whitmee 
seamanship, Polynesian . . .18,21 

seed of speech 

sele 

selu 

Semitic theory discussed 

sense perception 

Sesake, check-list 

phonetic table 

mentioned 

seven not mystic 

Sheppard Group 

sieve theory 14, 



132, 137, 

287,475 

58 

no 

13 

216 

402,488 

247 

260 

153 
241 

153 

153 

153 

138, 180 

173,408 

203 

153 

1,53 

140, 1 80 

58 

III 

247 

153 

436 

462 

153 

247 

58 

112 

282 

283 

153 

153 

282 

195.283 

283 

17.23 

2IO 

45 
153 

58 
112 

153 

35. 169 

138, 140 

350 

260 

218 

26, 176 

399 

58 

113 

47 

19 

45 

138, 148 



PAGB. 

Sikayana 3,15,22, 142, 180 

si'i 261 

silt 405 

stlinga 405 

Silong, check-list 153 

sina 406, 488 

Sina 483 

sina'aiunga 242 

Sinaugoro, check-list 436 

phonetic table 463 

Sirang, check-list 153 

sisili 405 

Siwa, check-list 153 

skull 224 

sky 359 

smell 400 

Smith, S. Percy, general migra- 
tion theory 20, 21, 26, 

180, 184, 383 

"Hawaiki" 20,26, 179, 184 

Tongafiti migration 180 

smoke , 286 

soa 306 

Sokotra, check-list 175 

•ioloi 262 

Solomon Islands, check-list 58 

mentioned. ... 18, 21, 137, 140, 180 

Solor, check-list 153 

songi 306 

spirant mutation 340 

strike 266 

su 221 

sua 221 

Suau, check-list 436 

phonetic table 464 

substantive verb 260, 424 

su'i 225 

Sula, check-list 153 

suli 2n 

Sulu, check-list 153 

sulti 247 

sulu 405 

sulufa'i 405 

suluma'i 405 

Sumatra 18, 19, 25, 169, 172 

Sunda, check-list 153 

sununga 407 

susu 410, 488 

susulu 247 

susunu 407 

Swallow Group 45. 46 

sword 217 

Syriac, check-list 175 

^mutations 53, 127, 132, 135, 137, 

158, 167, 177,221,238,256, 

264, 265, 302, 316, 32 1, 345, 374, 475 

ta 411 

tabu in speech 48, 299 

tae 414 

Taema 138, 414 

tafa 211 

tafe 264 

tafuli 335 

Tagafog, check-list 153 

Tagula, check-list 436 

phonetic table 465 



INDEX. 



515 



PAGE. 

tai 216,418 

taimasa 257 

ta'alaelae 304 

ta'ili 355 

ta'u 225 

tala 223 

tala 238 

talafa'aoti 274 

talai 310 

talele 42 1 

tali 200 

talinga 415, 488 

talingatuli 284 

talo , 415,488 

talosanga 236 

tama 272, 480 

tamafafine 337 

Tanna, check-list 58 

phonetic table 114 

towM 308 

ianga 265 

tangata 243 

tangi 412 

tango 401 

Tangoan Santo, check-list 58 

phonetic table. 115 

idngulu 393 

tangulu 293 

tao 248 

iapa 248 

tapu 263, 480 

taste 400 

taia 411 

tatala 223 

tatalo 236 

tatangi 412 

tau 237 

tau 248 

tau 283 

tau 309 

tau 283 

Taui 15 

taula 237 

taumaja 236 

Taupota, check-list 436 

phonetic table 466 

tausanga 309 

Tauu 4, 142 

tauvale 237 

Tavara, check-list 436 

phonetic table 467 

tefe 265 

tei 193, 478 

telatela 238 

tele 238 

telea'i 211 

Teluti, check-list 153 

Teor, check-list 153 

tepa 201 

Ternati, check-list 153 

, " thee and thou " 302 

Thai, as a Polynesian source. ... 25 

Thilenius, Dr. G., sieve theory . . 14, 18, 19, 

21,23, 138, 140, 141 

Ticopia 3, i6, 45, 46, 142 

Tidore, check-list 153 

Tigre, check-list 175 

tila 239 



PAGB. 

Tilafainga 138 

tilotilo 422 

Timor, check-list 153 

tio 422 

toa 423 

Tobo, check-list 153 

Togean Islands, check-list 153 

to'a 423 

to'elau 215 

Tokelau Islands 14 

to'i 3 10 

to'o 420 

Tongafiti migration 43, 45, 48, 49, 138, 179, 

180, 24.5, 259, 262, 285, 286, 

295,297,303,312,362,379 

Tongafiti, tracesin Melanesia . . . 138, 275 

^^0 ■ 395 

touch 401 

Treasury Island, check-list 58 

Tregear, Edward. . . . 20,21, 151,219,231, 

236, 237, 241, 245, 268, 279, 

280,282,297,307,312, 362,428 

triliteralism 28, 176 

Tringanu, check-list 153 

iu 424 

tuafafine 337 

tuai 311 

Tuatau, driftwood idol 144 

Tubetube, check-list 436 

phonetic table 468 

iufa 188, 367 

tui 225 

tu'i 266 

tu'u 226 

tula A2A. 

tula 424 

tuli 284 

tului 425 

tulutulu 425 

tuluvao 425 

tuma 200 

tunu 407 

tungia 407 

tupunga 214 

Turanian origin 25 

tutu 407 

Tutuila 23 

tutula'i 424 

tutulu 425 

«-mutations 51, 122, 155, 305. 473 

u 200 

« 485 

ua 322 

M« 322,483 

Uea. .. . . . ._ 45.145 

check-list 58 

phonetic table 115 

ufi. 316, 482 

^fi 315 

Ugi, check-list 58 

phonetic table 115 

uila 345 

ula 430 

Ulawa, check-list 58 

phonetic table 116 

ule 431 

Ulea, check-list 153 



516 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

uluulu 267, 480 

uma 235 

umelolo 224 

umu 199, 479 

una 312 

unafi 312 

Uni, check-list 436 

phonetic table 469 

unusi 312 

uta 216 

uta 285 

Utanata, check-list 153 

uiu 242 

Uvea 397 

■y-mutations 54, 128, 133, 

135.136,160,167,476 

vaevae 201 

vai 339, 484 

Vaiqueno East, check-list 153 

vaito'elau 216 

vale 251 

valu 326 

valu 326 

valusanga 326 

Vanikoro, check-list 58 

phonetic table 116 

Vanua Lava, check-list 58 

vafele 238 

Vaturanga, check-list 58 

phonetic table .... 117 

%-elo • 202 

Verge, Polynesian ; defined .... 4 

Thilenius theory of set- 
tlement 14 

windward position 142 

veve 194 

Vila, seat of administration .... 10 



PAGE. 

vili 220 

Visayas, check-Ust 153 

Viti 20,23,25, 138, 180 

race mixture 2 

Efat6 concords 42 

speech mixture 35, 47 

stream 147, 173, 211, 290, 

328,350,396,408,491 

Viti, Samoan phonetics 39 

vivini 290 

Volow, check-list 58 

phonetic table 118 

volu 346 

vowels, mutation frequency ... 36 

difficult to acquire 36 

Vuras, check-Ust 58 

phonetic table 119 

Wagawaga 470 

Wahai, check-list 153 

Waigiou, check-list 153 

Waima, check list 436 

phonetic table 470 

Wango. check-list 58 

phonetic table 120 

Wawn, Capt. William T 4 

weather gage 140 

Wedau, check-list 436 

phonetic table 471 

white 329 

Whitney, William Dwight 183 

winds and migration 16, 216 

obstacles to migration . . 21 

set the course 141 

windward islands, significant set- 
tlement 142 

^-initial, Viti 319, 321 



80 



Aua , 4:^^•^llnlgol^ 

--~-^° Moanus ••• •;— Agomes I 

= ""\ Si 
Vuvulu "" ~~^^^^ Admiralty I 

70 --, ---- C^^-^.^ 



^=^^ 



'6 



150 



St. Matthias 



^J-^^--^ 



■ ^ 



It: A. '11 



i 



LIBRARY 




